Pollutants in Drinking water

Remember when you were a kid and there was nothing better to do on a hot summer day than taking a long, satisfying drink from the water fountain, that universal source of free drinking water? Things were so simple back then. Today, we know that tap water can often contain harmful contaminants including toxic chemicals and heavy metals. As a consumer response, plastic water bottles now clog our offices, minivans, hotels, and kids’ lunch boxes. We have become a generation of plastic users and hoarders.

But notice that bottled water is mostly just plain water. More than 25% of bottled water comes from municipal sources – that’s right, simple tap water – which means all you’re getting is very expensive purified city water. Independent tests have also shown that the quality of bottled water can range from very good to dangerously bad as the industry is weakly regulated.

Below is a list of contaminants that can often be found in both tap and bottled water.

Arsenic:

Arsenic may be found in water which has flowed through arsenic-rich rocks. Severe health effects have been observed in populations drinking arsenic-rich water over long periods in countries worldwide.

SOURCE

Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the earth’s crust.
Arsenic is introduced into the water through the dissolution of minerals and ores, and concentrations in groundwater in some areas are elevated as a result of erosion from local rocks.
Industrial effluents also contribute arsenic to water in some areas.
Arsenic is also used commercially e.g. in alloying agents and wood preservatives.
The combustion of fossil fuels is a source of arsenic in the environment through dispersed atmospheric deposition.
Inorganic arsenic can occur in the environment in several forms but in natural waters, and thus in drinking water, it is mostly found as trivalent arsenate (As(III)) or pentavalent arsenate (As (V)). Organic arsenic species, abundant in seafood, are very much less harmful to health and are readily eliminated by the body.
Drinking water poses the greatest threat to public health from arsenic. Exposure at work and mining and industrial emissions may also be significant locally.

Arsenic is a heavy metal that leaches into water from the ground or industrial waste, and the National Resources Defence Council (NRDC) has stated that bottled water is no safer than tap water because most bottled water is tap water that may or may not have been properly filtered.

Long-term exposure to Arsenic causes lung, bladder, and skin cancer and may cause liver and kidney cancer. It can also damage your heart, and central and peripheral nervous systems, and can instigate reproductive system problems and birth defects. As a result, you should avoid this contaminant at all costs.

The NRDC affirms the best way to reduce your exposure to arsenic is by purchasing a quality water filter that you can monitor and maintain yourself.

Antimony

Drinking Water Contaminants- Antimony

This is a factsheet about a chemical that may be found in some public or private drinking water supplies. It may cause health problems if found in amounts greater than the health standard set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

What is Antimony and how is it used?

Antimony is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. The most widely used antimony compound is antimony trioxide, used as a flame retardant. It is also found in batteries, pigments, and ceramics/glass.

Why is Antimony being Regulated?

In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires EPA to determine safe levels of chemicals in drinking water that do or may cause health problems. These non-enforceable levels, based solely on possible health risks and exposure, are called Maximum Contaminant Level Goals.

The MCLG for antimony has been set at 6 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

Based on this MCLG, EPA has set an enforceable standard called a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL). MCLs are set as close to the MCLGs as possible, considering the ability of public water systems to detect and remove contaminants using suitable treatment technologies.

The MCL has also been set at 6 ppb because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

These drinking water standards and the regulations for ensuring these standards are met are called National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. All public water supplies must abide by these regulations.

What are the Health Effects?

Short-term: EPA has found antimony to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Long-term: Antimony has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: AND/OR- Antimony is a (known/potential drinking water) human carcinogen. OR- No reliable data are available concerning health effects from long-term exposure to antimony in drinking water.

How much Antimony is produced and released into the environment?

In 1984, 64.5 million lbs. of antimony ore was mined and refined. Production of the most commonly used antimony compound, trioxide, increased during the 1980s to about 31 million lbs, reported in 1985. Industrial dust, auto exhaust, and home heating oil are the main sources of urban air.

From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory antimony and antimony compound releases to land and water totalled over 12 million lbs. These releases were primarily from copper and lead smelting and refining industries. The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Montana. The greatest releases of water occurred in Washington and Louisiana.

What happens to Antimony when it is released into the environment?

Little is known about antimony’s fate once released into the soil. Some studies indicate that antimony is highly mobile in soils, while others conclude that it strongly adsorbs the soil. In water, it usually adheres to sediments. Most antimony compounds show little or no tendency to accumulate in aquatic life.

How will Antimony be Detected in and Removed from My Drinking Water?

The regulation for antimony became effective in 1994. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples every 3 months for one year and analyse them to find out if antimony is present above 6 ppb. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of antimony so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing antimony: Coagulation/Filtration, Reverse Osmosis, King of Filters.

How will I know if Antimony is in my drinking water?

If the levels of antimony exceed the MCL, the system must notify the public via newspapers, radio, TV, and other means. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 6 ppb
MCL: 6 ppb.

Asbestos

How will I know if Asbestos is in my drinking water?

Thousands of kilometres of Australian water pipes contain hazardous asbestos cement that is coming to the end of its life, an industry organization has revealed.

The Water Services Association of Australia said replacing the material across 40,000 kilometres of piping could cost consumers up to $8 billion. Managing Director Adam Lovell told the ABC that utilities companies are currently monitoring the situation to see how rapidly changes should be made.

“You don’t necessarily want to go rushing out and replace it all, either. The current standard practice, the safest practice, is to remove sections of the pipeline … rather than trying to repair it on-site,” he explained.

Tanya Segelov, a member of the council for the Asbestos Safety and Eradication Agency (ASEA), said Australian asbestos manufacturing firm James Hardie was responsible for building many of the country’s water pipelines.

She added that there are now millions of aging pipes in the ground that contain asbestos cement. According to the ABC, there is no evidence that asbestos has contaminated drinking water, but people could still inhale harmful dust if the pipes are ever disturbed.

Asbestos is linked to several life-threatening lung diseases, including mesothelioma and asbestosis. The material was commonly used in building materials during the mid-19th century, with the ASEA claiming 1.5 million tonnes of asbestos was imported into the country between 1930 and 1983.

Claiming compensation for dust diseases

People who are exposed to asbestos in the workplace can pursue compensation claims if they later develop serious illnesses.

Trevor Grant, former sports journalist for The Age and the Herald, believes asbestos at the newspaper offices where he worked caused him to contract mesothelioma.

“There were pipes that I discovered were regularly cleaned in The Herald building that contained asbestos,” he told the ABC. “In The Age building, when they first built it, they just sprayed it everywhere as a fire retardant, I gather.”

Mr. Grant claimed there is not enough awareness around mesothelioma and urged the authorities to do more to warn people of the dangers of asbestos.

Campaigners against asbestos agree but argue that needless bureaucracy is hampering the ASEA from fulfilling its role.

Barry Robson, the Asbestos Diseases Foundation of Australia president, said victim support groups called for the agency’s implementation for more than a dozen years, only for it to now struggle with underfunding.

What is Asbestos and how is it used?

Asbestos is a fibrous mineral occurring in natural deposits. Because asbestos fibers are resistant to heat and most chemicals, they have been mined for use in over 3,000 different products, including roofing materials, brake pads, and cement pipes often used in distributing water to communities.

Why is Asbestos being regulated?

The MCLG for asbestos has been set at 7 million fibers per liter of water (M.L.) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has also been set at 7 M.L. because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: Asbestos is not known to cause any health problems when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods.

Long-term: Asbestos has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: lung disease; cancer.

How much Asbestos is produced and released into the environment?

Asbestos fibers may be released from natural sources such as erosion of asbestos-containing ores, but the primary source is through the wear or breakdown of asbestos-containing materials, particularly from the wastewater of mining and other industries, and by the use of asbestos cement pipes in water supply systems.

From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory, asbestos releases to water and land totaled nearly 9 million lbs. These releases were primarily from asbestos products industries that use asbestos in roofing materials, friction materials, and cement. The largest releases occurred in Pennsylvania and Louisiana.

What happens to Asbestos when it is released into the environment?

As a naturally occurring substance, asbestos can be present in surface and groundwater. Small fibers may be carried long distances by water currents before settling. Asbestos fibers do not bind to soils but do NT migrate to groundwater through soils. Asbestos is not expected to accumulate in aquatic life.

How will Asbestos be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation of asbestos became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if asbestos is present above 7 M.L. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant once every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of asbestos so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing asbestos: Coagulation/Filtration, Direct and Diatomite Filtration, and Reverse osmosis.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 7 M.L. (million fibers per liter)

MCL: 7 M.L.

Barium

Drinking Water Contaminants – Barium

What is Barium and how is it used?

Barium is a lustrous, machinable metal that exists in nature only in ores containing mixtures of elements. It is used in making a wide variety of electronic components, including metal alloys, bleaches, dyes, fireworks, ceramics, and glass. In particular, it is used in well drilling operations where it is directly released into the ground.

Why is Barium being regulated?

The MCLG for barium has been set at 2 parts per million (ppm) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has also been set at 2 ppm because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found barium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: gastrointestinal disturbances and muscular weakness.

Long-term: Barium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: high blood pressure.

*Water/Land totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount – usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs.

How much Barium is produced and released into the environment?

The most common ores are found in AK, AR, CA, GA, KY, MO, NV, and TN. Barite was produced at 38 mines in these states in 1973, with Nevada supplying 50% of the tonnage. Barium is released to water and soil in the discharge and disposal of drilling wastes, from the smelting of copper, and the manufacture of motor vehicle parts and accessories.

From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory barium compound releases to land and water totaled over 57 million lbs. These releases were primarily from copper smelting industries. The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Utah. The largest direct releases of water occurred in Texas.

What happens to Barium when it is released into the environment?

In water, the more toxic soluble barium salts are likely to be converted to insoluble salts which precipitate. Barium does not bind to most soils and may migrate to groundwater. It has a low tendency to accumulate in aquatic life.

How will Barium be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for barium became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if barium is present above 2 ppm. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of barium so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing barium: Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Lime Softening, and Electrodialysis.

How will I know if Barium is in my drinking water?

If the levels of barium exceed the MCL, the system must notify the public via newspapers, radio, TV, and other means. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 2 ppm

MCL: 2 ppm

Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in bottled water

In a recent study led by Johns Hopkins University researchers and published in the journal Water Research, alarming findings regarding per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in bottled water have surfaced, reigniting the call for federal regulations. The study, which tested over 100 bottled waters, discovered PFAS in 39 samples, prompting concerns among water quality experts and lawmakers alike.

PFAS in Bottled Water:

The study did not disclose specific brands, but it identified a significant difference in PFAS levels between bottled waters labelled as “purified” and those labelled as “spring.” “Purified” water, typically filtered through reverse osmosis, showed lower levels of PFAS compared to untreated “spring” water. PFAS, known as “forever chemicals” due to their environmental persistence, have been linked to health issues, including cancer and developmental delays in children.

Lack of Federal Standards:

Currently, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), responsible for regulating bottled water in the U.S., has not established limits on PFAS in bottled water. The agency is reviewing the recent study, emphasizing that setting standards at this time might not significantly enhance its mission of public health protection. Similarly, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which oversees tap water, has yet to set PFAS standards, though it recommends limiting PFAS in water utilities to 70 parts per trillion.

Industry Standards and Lawmaker Response:

The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), representing various bottled water manufacturers, has set PFAS standards for its members, limiting any single PFAS compound to 5 ppt and a total of 10 ppt for more than one. However, three samples exceeded this combined limit in the recent study. Lawmakers, led by Sen. Richard Blumenthal, have urged the FDA to establish legally enforceable PFAS standards for bottled water, emphasizing the lack of federal limits on these harmful chemicals. Some scientists believe a much lower limit of 1 ppt is appropriate.

Concerns about ‘Ultrashort-Chain’ PFAS:

The study also raises concerns about newer PFAS compounds, specifically ultrashort-chain PFAS, which constitute 42% of all PFAS identified in the tests. These compounds, believed to be safer alternatives, may pose similar health risks, according to preliminary research. Consumer Reports Senior Scientist Michael Hansen recommends testing for ultrashort-chain PFAS to obtain a more accurate picture of the total PFAS present.

Implications for Consumers:

Consumers concerned about PFAS in bottled water are advised to choose products labelled as “purified” or processed using treatments like reverse osmosis. A rigorous testing regimen of source water supplies by regulators is recommended to ensure elevated PFAS levels are identified and prevented from entering the market.

Addressing PFAS Contamination:

PFAS chemicals, widely used in various products, pose significant health and environmental risks. Contamination can occur in tap water, bottled water, and food packaging. Certain water filters, such as reverse osmosis systems, have shown effectiveness in reducing PFAS levels. APEC Water offers high-quality water filters, including reverse osmosis systems, known for their efficiency in PFAS removal.

Protection:

The revelations from the recent study on PFAS in bottled water underscore the imperative for federal regulations and standards to protect public health. In response to the growing awareness of potential risks among consumers, it becomes essential to stay informed, monitor water quality reports, and employ effective measures for ensuring safe drinking water. A noteworthy solution in this regard is the application of cutting-edge technology, particularly the Australian Made King of water Purification systems Model F6, F5 and F4 and Reverse Osmosis Water filters such as RO4, RO5 and RO6 have demonstrated the capability to efficiently remove PFAS contaminants, providing an additional layer of reassurance for individuals concerned about the quality of their drinking water.

Beryllium

Drinking Water Contaminants- Beryllium

How does Beryllium get into drinking water?

The primary source of beryllium compounds in water appears to be released from coal burning and other industries using beryllium. Other sources of beryllium in surface water include deposition of atmospheric beryllium and weathering of rocks and soils containing beryllium.

What is Beryllium and how is it used?

Beryllium is a metal found in natural deposits such as ores containing other elements and in some precious stones such as emeralds and aquamarine. The greatest use of beryllium is in making metal alloys for nuclear reactors and the aerospace industry.

Why is Beryllium being regulated?

In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires EPA to determine safe levels of chemicals in drinking water that do or may cause health problems These non-enforceable levels, based solely on possible health risks and exposure, are called Maximum Contaminant Level Goals.

The MCLG for beryllium has been set at 4 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has also been set at 4 ppb because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found barium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: inflammation of the lungs when inhaled; less toxic in drinking water.

Long-term: Beryllium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: damage to bones and lungs; cancer.

What happens to Beryllium when it is released into the environment?

Very little is known about what happens to beryllium compounds when released into the environment. It appears unlikely to leach to groundwater when released to land. Erosion or runoff of beryllium compounds into surface waters is not likely to be in a soluble form.

How will Beryllium be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for beryllium became effective in 1994. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if beryllium is present above 4 ppb. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of beryllium so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing beryllium: Activated Alumina, Coagulation/filtration, Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, and Reverse Osmosis.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 4 ppb
MCL: 4 ppb

Cadmium

Drinking Water Contaminants- Cadmium

Chemicals that may be found in some public or private drinking water supplies. It may cause health problems if found in amounts greater than the health standard set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

What is Cadmium and how is it used?

Cadmium is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. The greatest use of cadmium is primarily for metal plating and coating operations, including transportation equipment, machinery and baking enamels, photography, and television phosphors. It is also used in nickel-cadmium and solar batteries and pigments.

Sources of cadmium

Natural levels in Australian soils range from less than 0.1 to 0.5 milligrams per kilogram, or about 0.1 to 0.7 kg cadmium per hectare in the top 10 centimeters of soil. Rain and irrigation water generally have very low cadmium concentrations, The most important sources of airborne cadmium are smelters. Other sources of airborne cadmium include burning fossil fuels such as coal or oil and incineration of municipal waste such as plastics and nickel-cadmium batteries (which can be deposited as solid waste) (Sahmoun et al.

Why is Cadmium being regulated?

The MCLG for cadmium has been set at 5 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has also been set at 5 ppb because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant if it occurs in drinking water.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found cadmium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, salivation, sensory disturbances, liver injury, convulsions, shock, and renal failure.

Long-term: Cadmium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: kidney, liver, bone, and blood damage, long-term exposure to cadmium through air, water, soil, and food leads to cancer and organ system toxicity such as skeletal, urinary, reproductive, cardiovascular, central and peripheral nervous, and respiratory systems. Cadmium levels can be measured in the blood, urine, hair, nail, and saliva samples.

How much Cadmium is produced and released into the environment?

Cadmium occurs naturally in zinc, lead, copper, and other ores which can serve as sources to ground and surface waters, especially when in contact with soft, acidic waters. Major industrial releases of cadmium are due to waste streams and leaching of landfills, and from a variety of operations that involve cadmium or zinc. In particular, cadmium can be released into drinking water from the corrosion of some galvanized plumbing and water main pipe materials.

Drinking Water Contaminants- Cadmium

What happens to Cadmium when it is released into the environment?

Some cadmium compounds can leach through soils to groundwater. When cadmium compounds do bind to the sediments of rivers, they can be more easily bioaccumulated or re-dissolved when sediments are disturbed, such as during flooding. Its tendency to accumulate in aquatic life is great in some species, low in others.?

How will Cadmium be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for cadmium became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if cadmium is present above 5 ppb. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of cadmium so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing cadmium: Coagulation/Filtration, Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, and Reverse Osmosis.

How will I know if Cadmium is in my drinking water?

If the levels of cadmium exceed the MCL, the system must notify the public. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 5 ppb

MCL: 5 ppb

Chromium

Drinking Water Contaminants- Chromium

What is Chromium and how is it used?

Chromium is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. The greatest use of chromium is in metal alloys such as stainless steel; protective coatings on metal; magnetic tapes; and pigments for paints, cement, paper, rubber, composition floor covering, and other materials. Its soluble forms are used in wood preservatives.

Why is Chromium being regulated?

The MCLG for chromium has been set at 0.1 parts per million (ppm) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has also been set at 0.1 ppm because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

These drinking water standards and the regulations for ensuring these standards are met, are called National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. All public water supplies must abide by these regulations.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found chromium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods of time: skin irritation or ulceration.

Long-term: Chromium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: damage to the liver, kidney circulatory, and nerve tissues; skin irritation.

What is Chromium and how is it used?

Why is Chromium being regulated?

The MCLG for chromium has been set at 0.1 parts per million (ppm) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

What are the health effects?

Long-term: Chromium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: damage to the liver, kidney circulatory, and nerve tissues; skin irritation.

How much Chromium is produced and released to the Environment?

Chromium occurs in nature mostly as chrome iron ore and is widely found in soils and plants, it is rare in natural waters. The two largest sources of chromium emission in the atmosphere are from the chemical manufacturing industry and the combustion of natural gas, oil, and coal, Emissions to air and water from: Chemical manufacturing industry e.g., dyes for paints, rubber and plastic products. Metal finishing industry e.g., chrome plating. Manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, wood, stone, clay and glass products.
Electrical and aircraft manufacturers, steam and air conditioning supply services. Cement producing plants as cement contains chromium. Incineration of sewage sludge.

Chromium: In 2010 the Environmental Working Group (EWP) found excessive levels of chromium 6, a carcinogen, in the water supply of 31 U.S. cities. Exposure to chromium 6 causes a long list of terrible conditions like stomach cancer, kidney failure, renal and liver failure, premature dementia, and allergic contact dermatitis.

Chromates are often used to make leather goods, mortar, and paints, and they leach from these industrial processes into groundwater and soil, eventually ending up in our water.

Rebecca Sutton, a senior scientist with the EWP, says the best way to protect yourself is to buy an effective water filter since bottled water is not necessarily safer than tap water.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 0.1 ppm
MCL: 0.1 ppm

Copper

Drinking Water Contaminants – Copper

This is a factsheet about Copper, a chemical that may be found in some public or private drinking water supplies. It may cause health problems if found in amounts greater than the health standard set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

What is Copper and how is it used?

Copper is a heavy metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. It is widely used in household plumbing materials.

Why is Copper being regulated?

The MCLG for copper has been set at 1.3 parts per million (ppm) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

Since copper contamination generally occurs from corrosion of household copper pipes, it cannot be directly detected or removed by the water system. Instead, EPA is requiring water systems to control the corrosiveness of their water if the level of copper at home taps exceeds an Action Level.

The Action Level for copper has also been set at 1.3 ppm because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to control this contaminant should it occur in drinking water at their customer’s home taps.

What are the health effects?

Short- and long-term effects: Copper is an essential nutrient, required by the body in very small amounts. However, EPA has found copper to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the Action Level. Short periods of exposure can cause gastrointestinal disturbance, including nausea and vomiting. Use of water that exceeds the Action Level over many years could cause liver or kidney damage. People with Wilson’s disease may be more sensitive than others to the effect of copper contamination and should consult their healthcare provider.

How much Copper is produced and released into the environment?

Copper may occur in drinking water either by contamination of the source water used by the water system or by corrosion of copper plumbing. Corrosion of plumbing is by far the greatest cause for concern. Copper is rarely found in source water, but copper mining and smelting operations and municipal incineration may be sources of contamination.

Widespread copper and lead contamination of household drinking water, in New South Wales, Australia,

P J Harvey et al. Environ Res. 2016 Nov.

This study examines arsenic, copper, lead, and manganese drinking water contamination at the domestic consumer’s kitchen tap in homes in New South Wales, Australia. Analysis of 212 first-draw drinking water samples shows that almost 100% and 56% of samples contain detectable concentrations of copper and lead, respectively. Of these detectable concentrations, copper exceeds Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) in 5% of samples and lead in 8%. By contrast, no samples contained arsenic and manganese water concentrations over the ADWG. Analysis of household plumbing fittings (taps and connecting pipework) show that these are a significant source of drinking water lead contamination. Water lead concentrations derived for plumbing components range from 108µg/L to 1440µg/L (n=28, mean – 328µg/L, median – 225µg/L). Analysis of kitchen tap fittings demonstrates these are a primary source of drinking water lead contamination (n=9, mean – 63.4µg/L, median – 59.0µg/L). The results of this study demonstrate that along with other potential sources of contamination in households, plumbing products that contain detectable lead up to 2.84% are contributing to the contamination of household drinking water. Given that both copper and lead are known to cause significant health detriments, products for use in contact with drinking water should be manufactured free from copper and lead.

What happens to Copper when it is released into the environment?

All water is corrosive toward copper to some degree, even water termed noncorrosive or water treated to make it less corrosive. Corrosivity toward copper is greatest in very acidic water. Many of the other factors that affect the corrosivity of water toward lead can also be expected to affect the corrosion of copper.

How will Copper be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for copper became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples from household taps twice a year and analyze them to find out if copper is present above 1.3 ppm in more than 10 percent of all homes tested. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant twice a year.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the Action Level, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of copper so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for controlling copper: Corrosion control.

How will I know if Copper is in my drinking water?

You may notice discolored water coming from the faucet which is a common indicator of copper piping corrosion. Most commonly, you’ll see this in the “first draw of the day” as that is the water that has sat in your pipes overnight. Metallic taste. Corroded copper pipes create a metallic taste. 1 Mar 2022

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 1.3 ppm
Action level: 1.3 ppm

Cryptosporidium

Guidance for people with weakened immune systems

Cryptosporidium is a parasite commonly found in lakes and rivers, especially when the water is contaminated with sewage and animal wastes. Cryptosporidium is very resistant to disinfection, and even a well-operated water treatment system cannot ensure that drinking water will be completely free of this parasite. Current EPA drinking water standards were not explicitly designed to assure the removal or killing of Cryptosporidium. Many large water systems already voluntarily take actions for greater control of Cryptosporidium and other microbial contaminants. the water systems serving the majority of the Australian population (those relying on a surface water source, such as a Dam and river ) must meet a new EPA standard that strengthens control over microbial contaminants, including Cryptosporidium. EPA continues to research microbial contaminants which will be used for determining priorities for the drinking water program, including setting future standards and reevaluating existing standards.

Cryptosporidium has caused several large waterborne disease outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness, with symptoms that include diarrhea, nausea, and/or stomach cramps. People with severely weakened immune systems (that is, severely immunocompromised) are likely to have more severe and more persistent symptoms than healthy individuals. Moreover, Cryptosporidium has been a contributing cause of death in some immunocompromised people. Individuals who are severely immunocompromised may include those who are infected with HIV/AIDS, cancer and transplant patients taking immunosuppressive drugs, and people born with a weakened immune system.

BACKGROUND:

Data are not adequate to determine how most people become infected. For example, we do not know the importance of drinking water compared to other possible sources of Cryptosporidium, such as exposure to the feces of infected persons or animals, sex involving contact with feces, eating contaminated food, or accidentally swallowing contaminated recreational water.

Thus, in the absence of an outbreak, there are insufficient data to determine whether a severely immunocompromised individual is at a noticeably greater risk than the general public from waterborne Cryptosporidiosis. Even a low level of Cryptosporidium in water, however, may be of concern for the severely immunocompromised, because the illness can be life-threatening. The risk of a severely immunocompromised individual acquiring Cryptosporidiosis from drinking water in the absence of an outbreak is likely to vary from city to city, depending on the quality of the city’s water source and the quality of water treatment. Current risk data are not adequate to support a recommendation that severely immunocompromised persons in all U.S. cities boil or avoid drinking tap water.

In the absence of a recognized outbreak, this guidance has been developed for severely immunocompromised people who may wish to take extra precautions to minimize their risk of infection from waterborne Cryptosporidiosis. To be effective, the guidance must be followed consistently for all water used for drinking or for mixing beverages. During outbreaks of waterborne Cryptosporidiosis, studies have found that people who used precautions only part of the time were just as likely to become ill as people who did not use them at all.

GUIDANCE:

EPA and CDC have developed the following guidance for severely immunocompromised people who may wish to take extra precautions. Such individuals should consult with their healthcare provider about what measures would be most appropriate and effective for reducing their overall risk of Cryptosporidium and other types of infection.

Although data are not sufficient for EPA/CDC to recommend that all severely immunocompromised persons take extra caution about their drinking water, individuals who wish to take extra measures to avoid waterborne Cryptosporidiosis can bring their drinking water to a full boil for one minute. Boiling water is the most effective way of killing Cryptosporidium.

As an alternative to boiling water, people may use the following measures:

* A point-of-use (personal use, end-of-tap, under-sink) filter. Only point-of-use filters that remove particles one micrometer or less in diameter should be considered. Filters in this category that provide the greatest assurance of Cryptosporidium removal include those that use reverse osmosis, those labeled as “Absolute” one-micrometer filters,” The “Nominal” one-micrometer rating is not standardized and many filters in this category may not reliably remove Cryptosporidium. As with all filters, people should follow the manufacturer’s instructions for filter use and replacement. Water treated with a point-of-use filter that meets the above criteria may not necessarily be free of organisms smaller than Cryptosporidium which could pose a health hazard for severely immunocompromised individuals.

Can you get Cryptosporidium from tap water?

Cryptosporidium parasites get into surface water sources, such as rivers and lakes, from the stool (feces) of infected animals or people. Public water systems that get their water from these surface water sources can contain Cryptosporidium oocysts (the egg-like form of the parasite).

When an outbreak of waterborne Cryptosporidiosis is recognized and is determined to be ongoing, officials of the public health department and/or the water utility will normally issue a “boil water” notice to protect both the general public and the immunocompromised.

Current testing methods cannot determine with certainty whether Cryptosporidium detected in drinking water is alive or whether it can infect humans. In addition, the current method often requires several days to get results, by which time the tested water has already been used by the public and is no longer in the community’s water pipes.

Severely immunocompromised people may face a variety of health risks. Depending on their illness and circumstances, a response by such individuals that focuses too specifically on one health risk may decrease the amount of attention that should be given to other risks. Healthcare providers can assist severely immunocompromised persons in weighing these risks and in applying this guidance.

As part of the Drinking Water and Health pages, this fact sheet is part of a larger EPA publication:

EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations

Cyanide

Drinking-Water Contaminants- Cyanide

What is Cyanide and how is it used?

Cyanide is a carbon-nitrogen chemical unit that combines many organic and inorganic compounds. The most commonly used form, hydrogen cyanide, is mainly used to make the compounds needed to make nylon and other synthetic fibers and resins. Other cyanides are used as herbicides.

Why is Cyanide being regulated?

What are the sources of cyanide in drinking water?

The major sources of cyanides in water are discharges from some metal mining processes, organic chemical industries, iron and steel plants or manufacturers, and publicly owned wastewater treatment facilities.

What is the acceptable level of cyanide in drinking water?

EPA has set this level of protection based on the best available science to prevent potential health problems. EPA set an enforceable standard for cyanide, called a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL), at 0.2 mg/L or 200 ppb under the Chemical Phase Rule V (57 FR 31776-31849, Vol.

In Australia, background levels of cyanide in drinking water range up to 0.05 mg/L and are usually less than 0.02 mg/L.

The MCLG for cyanide has been set at 0.2 parts per million (ppm) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has been set at 0.2 ppm because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water. These drinking water standards and the regulations for ensuring these standards are met are called National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. All public water supplies must abide y these regulations.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found cyanide to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: rapid breathing, tremors, and other neurological effects.

Long-term: Cyanide has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: weight loss, thyroid effects, and nerve damage.

How much Cyanide is produced and released into the environment?

Production of the most common cyanides was roughly 5 billion pounds a year in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The major cyanide releases to water are discharges from metal finishing industries, iron and steel mills, and organic chemical industries. Releases to soil appear to be primarily from the disposal of cyanide wastes in landfills and the use of cyanide-containing road salts. Chlorination treatment of some wastewater can produce cyanides as a by-product.

50000 tonnes manufactured and used In Australia

From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory cyanide compound releases to land and water totaled about 1.5 million lbs. These releases were primarily from steel mills and metal heat-treating industries. The largest releases occurred in California and Pennsylvania.

What happens to Cyanide when it is released into the environment?

Cyanides are generally not persistent when released to water or soil, and are not likely to accumulate in aquatic life. They rapidly evaporate and are broken down by microbes. They do not bind to soils and may leach to groundwater.

How will Cyanide be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for cyanide became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if cyanide is present above 0.2 ppm. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of cyanide so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing cyanide: Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, and Chlorine.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 0.2 ppm

MCL: 0.2 ppm

E.coli

Drinking Water Contaminants – Escherichia coli, E. coli

One of the hundreds of strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli, E. coli O157:H7 is an emerging cause of foodborne and waterborne illnesses. Although most strains of E. coli are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals, this strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness. E. coli O157:H7 was first recognized as a cause of illness during an outbreak in 1982 traced to contaminated hamburgers. Since then, most infections are believed to have come from eating undercooked ground beef.

However, some have been waterborne. In 1999, people became sick after drinking contaminated water in Washington County, New York, and from swimming in contaminated water in Clark County, Washington. Here are some common questions about the health effects of E. coli O157:H7, and actions you can take to protect yourself and your family from E. coli infection.

What is E. coli and where does it come from?

E.coli is a type of fecal coliform bacteria commonly found in the intestines of animals and humans. E. coli is short for Escherichia coli. The presence of E. coli in water is a strong indication of recent sewage or animal waste contamination. Sewage may contain many types of disease-causing organisms.

What are fecal coliforms?

Fecal coliforms are bacteria that are associated with human or animal waste. The presence of fecal coliforms in water may not be directly harmful and does not necessarily indicate the presence of feces, however, it does indicate an increased likelihood of harmful pathogens in the water. The presence of fecal coliform tends to affect humans more than it does aquatic organisms, possible diseases include ear infection, dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A.

How does E. coli or other fecal coliforms get in the water?

E.coli comes from human and animal waste. During rainfalls, snow melts, or other types of precipitation, E. coli may be washed into creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or groundwater. When these waters are used as sources of drinking water and the water is not treated or inadequately treated, E. coli may end up in the drinking water.

What are the health effects of E. coli O157:H7?

E.coli O157:H7 is one of the hundreds of strains of the bacterium E. coli. Although most strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals, this strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness. Infection often causes severe bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps; sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea. Frequently, no fever is present. It should be noted that these symptoms are common to a variety of diseases, and may be caused by sources other than contaminated drinking water.

In some people, particularly children under 5 years of age and the elderly, the infection can also cause a complication called a haemolytic uremic syndrome, in which the red blood cells are destroyed and the kidneys fail. About 2%-7% of infections lead to this complication. In the United States, hemolytic uremic syndrome is the principal cause of acute kidney failure in children, and most cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome are caused by E. coli O157:H7. Hemolytic uremic syndrome is a life-threatening condition usually treated in an intensive care unit. Blood transfusions and kidney dialysis are often required. With intensive care, the death rate for hemolytic uremic syndrome is 3%-5%.

How long does it take for these symptoms of E. coli O157:H7 infection to occur?

Symptoms usually appear within 2 to 4 days but can take up to 8 days. Most people recover from antibiotics or other specific treatments in 5-10 days. There is no evidence that antibiotics improve the course of the disease, and it is thought that treatment with some antibiotics may precipitate kidney complications. Antidiarrheal agents, such as loperamide (Imodium), should also be avoided.

What should I do if I have any of the above symptoms?

Consult with your physician. Infection with E. coli O157:H7 is diagnosed by detecting the bacterium in the stool. Most laboratories that culture stool does not test for E. coli O157:H7, so it is important to request that the stool specimen be tested on sorbitol-MacConkey (SMAC) agar for this organism. All persons who suddenly have diarrhea with blood should get their stool tested for E. coli O157:H7.

Are there groups of people who are at greater risk of getting any of the symptoms?

Children under the age of five, the elderly, and people whose health is weakened (i.e., people who have long-term illnesses such as cancer or AIDS) are at greater risk of severe illness.

What should these people who are at greater risk do? Are there any additional precautions they should take?

People who are at greater risk should consult with their doctor or healthcare provider and follow the instructions provided.

Read Next: Tips on Protecting Your Home from E.coli

How will I know if my water is safe?

If you get your water from a public water system, then your water system is required by law to notify you if your water is not safe. If you are interested in obtaining information about your drinking water, consult the water quality report that you should receive annually from your local water system, or call your local water system directly.

How is water treated to protect me from E. coli?

The water can be treated using chlorine, ultra-violet light, or ozone, all of which act to kill or inactivate E. coli. Systems using surface water sources are required to disinfect to ensure that all bacterial contamination is inactivated, such as E. coli. Systems using groundwater sources are not required to disinfect, although many of them do.

If I have a private well, how can I have it tested for E. coli?

If you have a private well, you should have your water tested periodically. Contact your State laboratory certification officer to find out which laboratories have been certified for conducting total coliform analyses. (You may contact the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 1300066055. The NSW Health website has information on a range of water quality and health issues including drinking water.) Then contact a certified lab near you and get instructions on how to send them a water sample. Typically, the lab will first test for total coliforms, which is a group of related organisms that is common in both the environment and in the gut of animals. If the sample is positive for total coliforms, the lab will determine whether E. coli is also present. E. coli is a type of total coliform that is closely associated with recent fecal contamination. Few E. coli strains cause disease. However, the presence of any E. coli in a water sample suggests that disease-causing organisms are also likely to be present.

One of the strains of E. coli that causes the disease is E. coli O157:H7. EPA does not believe it necessary for an owner of a private well to test specifically for this organism under normal circumstances. If E. coli O157:H7 is present in your well, likely, other strains of E. coli are also present. If a well is E. coli-positive, regardless of strain, you should not drink the water unless it is disinfected. Several tests are available for determining whether E. coli O157:H7 is present, but they are somewhat more expensive than the standard E. coli tests and many labs may not have the expertise or supplies to perform these tests. Your state’s laboratory certification officer should be able to tell you which laboratories can perform these tests, or you can contact the lab directly.

If my well is contaminated with E. coli, what can I do to protect myself?

If your good tests positive for E. coli, do not drink the water unless you boil it for at least one minute at a rolling boil, longer if you live at high altitudes. You may also disinfect the well according to procedures recommended by your local health department. Monitor your water periodically after disinfection to make certain that the problem does not recur. If the contamination is a recurring problem, you should investigate the feasibility of drilling a new well or installing a point-of-entry disinfection unit, which can use chlorine, ultraviolet light, ozone, or reverse osmosis systems. It is also recommended to have a point-of-entry system that treats your water before it enters your house pipes, your water heater, faucet, shower, household appliances, etc.

How does the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulate E. coli?

According to EPA regulations, a system that operates at least 60 days per year, and serves 25 people or more or has 15 or more service connections, is regulated as a public water system under the Safe Drinking Water Act. If a system is not a public water system as defined by EPA’s regulations, it is not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, although it may be regulated by state or local authorities.

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA requires public water systems to monitor for coliform bacteria. Systems analyze first for total coliform because this test is faster to produce results. Any time that a sample is positive for total coliform, the same sample must be analyzed for either fecal coliform or E. coli. Both are indicators of contamination with animal waste or human sewage.

The largest public water systems (serving millions of people) must take at least 480 samples per month. Smaller systems must take at least five samples a month unless the state has conducted a sanitary survey (a survey in which a state inspector examines system components and ensures they will protect public health) at the system within the last five years.

Systems serving 25 to 1,000 people typically take one sample per month. Some states reduce this frequency to quarterly for groundwater systems if a recent sanitary survey shows that the system is free of sanitary defects. Some types of systems can qualify for annual monitoring.

Systems using surface water, rather than groundwater, are required to take extra steps to protect against bacterial contamination because surface water sources are more vulnerable to such contamination. At a minimum, all systems using surface waters must disinfect. Disinfection will kill E. coli O157:H7.

What can I do to protect myself from E. coli O157:H7 in drinking water?

Approximately 89 percent of Americans are receiving water from community water systems that meet all health-based standards. Your public water system is required to notify you if, for any reason, your drinking water is not safe. If you wish to take extra precautions, you can boil your water for one minute at a rolling boil, longer at higher altitudes. To find out more information about your water, see the Consumer Confidence Report from your local water supplier or contact your local water supplier directly.

If you draw water from a private well, you can contact your state health department to obtain information on how to have your well tested for total coliforms and E. coli contamination. If your well tests positive for E. coli, there are several steps that you should take: (1) begin boiling all water intended for consumption, (2) disinfect the well according to procedures recommended by your local health department, and (3) monitor your water quality to make certain that the problem does not recur. If the contamination is a recurring problem, you should investigate the feasibility of drilling a new well or installing a point-of-entry disinfection unit, which can use chlorine, ultraviolet light, or ozone.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) suggests other actions that you may take to prevent E. coli infection. These include:

Avoid swallowing lake or pool water while swimming.

Practice proper hygiene, especially good handwashing.

Thoroughly cook ground beef and avoid unpasteurized milk.

Make sure that persons with diarrhea, especially children, wash their hands carefully with soap after bowel movements to reduce the risk of spreading infection, and that persons wash their hands after changing soiled diapers. Anyone with a diarrhea illness should avoid swimming in public pools or lakes, sharing baths with others, and preparing food for others.

Cook all ground beef and hamburger thoroughly. Because ground beef can turn brown before disease-causing bacteria are killed, use a digital instant-read meat thermometer to ensure thorough cooking. Ground beef should be cooked until a thermometer inserted into several parts of the patty, including the thickest part, reads at least 160ºF. Persons who cook ground beef without using a thermometer can decrease their risk of illness by not eating ground beef patties that are still pink in the middle.

If you are served an undercooked hamburger or other ground beef product in a restaurant, send it back for further cooking. You may want to ask for a new bun and a clean plate, too.

Avoid spreading harmful bacteria in your kitchen. Keep raw meat separate from ready-to-eat foods. Wash hands, counters, and utensils with hot soapy water after they touch raw meat. Never place cooked hamburgers or ground beef on the unwashed plate that held raw patties. Wash meat thermometers in between tests of patties that require further cooking.

Drink only pasteurized milk, juice, or cider. Commercial juice with an extended shelf-life that is sold at room temperature (e.g. juice in cardboard boxes, vacuum-sealed juice in glass containers) has been pasteurized, although this is generally not indicated on the label. Juice concentrates are also heated sufficiently to kill pathogens.

Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly, especially those that will not be cooked. Children under 5 years of age, immunocompromised persons, and the elderly should avoid eating alfalfa sprouts until their safety can be assured. Methods to decontaminate alfalfa seeds and sprouts are being investigated.

As part of the Drinking Water and Health pages, this fact sheet is part of a larger U.S. EPA publication:

EPA National Primary Drinking Water Regulations

Fluoride

General description

Identity

Fluoride is a fairly common element that does not occur in the elemental state of nature because of its high reactivity. It accounts for about 0.3 g/kg of the earth’s crust and exists in the form of fluorides in several minerals, of which fluorspar, cryolite, and fluorapatite are the most common. The oxidation state of the fluoride ion is -1.

Property Sodium fluoride (NaF) Hydrogen fluoride (HF)

Physical state White, crystalline powder Colourless liquid or gas with a biting smell

Melting point (°C) 993 -83

Boiling point (°C) 1695 at 100 kPa 19.5

Density (g/cm3) 2.56 ?

Water solubility 42 g/litre at 10 °C Readily soluble below 20 °C

Acidity ? strong acid in liquid form; weak acid dissolved in water

Major uses

Inorganic fluorine compounds are used in aluminum production, as a flux in the steel and glass fiber industries, and in the production of phosphate fertilizers (which contain an average of 3.8% fluorine), bricks, tiles, and ceramics. Fluosilicic acid is used in municipal water fluoridation schemes (1).

Environmental fate

Although sodium fluoride is soluble in water (1), aluminum, calcium, and magnesium fluorides are only sparingly so.

Analytical methods

Fluoride is usually determined using an ion-selective electrode, which makes it possible to measure the total amount of free and complex-bound fluoride dissolved in water. The method can be used for water containing at least 20 g/litre (2). For rainwater in which fluoride was present at a concentration of 10 �g/litre, a detection limit of 1 g/litre was reported (4).

A method using a fluoride-elective electrode and an ion analyzer to determine fluoride at levels of 0.05?.4 mg/liter has been described (5). With a slight modification, the method can be used to measure fluoride at 0.4?.0 mg/liter.

Environmental levels and human exposure

Air

Natural background concentrations are of the order of 0.5 ng/m3. If anthropogenic emissions are included, worldwide background concentrations are of the order of 3 ng/m3. In the Netherlands, concentrations in areas without sources are 300 ng/m3, rising to 70 ng/m3 in areas with many sources (2). In a survey of fluoride in the air of some communities in the USA and Canada, concentrations were in the range of 0.02g/m3 (6). In some provinces of China, fluoride concentrations in indoor air ranged from 16 to 46 g/m3 owing to the indoor combustion of high-fluoride coal for cooking and drying, and curing food (7).

Water

Traces of fluorides are present in many waters; higher concentrations are often associated with underground sources. In seawater, a total fluoride concentration of 1.3 mg/liter has been reported (2). In areas rich in fluoride-containing minerals, well-waters may contain up to about 10 mg of fluoride per liter. The highest natural level reported is 2800 mg/liter. Fluorides may also enter a river as a result of industrial discharges (2). In groundwater, fluoride concentrations vary with the type of rock the water flows through but do not usually exceed 10 mg/liter (3). In the Rhine in the Netherlands, levels are below 0.2 mg/liter. In the Meuse, concentrations fluctuate (0.2?.3 mg/liter) as a result of industrial processes (2).

Fluoride concentrations in the groundwater of some villages in China were greater than 8 mg/liter (8,9). In Canada, fluoride levels in drinking water of <0.05?.2 mg/liter (non-fluoridated) and 0.6?.1 mg/liter (fluoridated) have been reported in municipal waters; in drinking water prepared from well-water, levels up to 3.3 mg/liter have been reported. In the USA, 0.2% of the population is exposed to more than 2.0 mg/liter (3). In the Netherlands, year-round averages for all drinking-water plants are below 0.2 mg/liter (2). In some African countries where the soil is rich in fluoride-containing minerals, levels of drinking water are relatively high (e.g., 8 mg/liter in the United Republic of Tanzania) (3).

Fluoride: It sounds ironic that fluoride is an unwanted water contaminant when it is the staple ingredient in so many kinds of toothpaste. In the right quantities, it may reduce and prevent tooth decay. However, fluoride is highly toxic and in larger quantities can cause dental fluorosis, poisoning, and even death. Fluoride is also a suspected carcinogen, so you do not want to drink water that is fluoridated.

Removal from Water

Simple technologies for household “point-of-use” removal of Fluoride from water are few which include reverse osmosis and have proven to be sustainable in each different setting.

Food

Virtually all foodstuffs contain at least traces of fluorine. All vegetation contains some fluoride, which is absorbed from soil and water. The highest levels in field-grown vegetables are found in curly kale (up to 40 mg/kg fresh weight) and endive (0.3?.8 mg/kg fresh weight) (2). Other foods containing high levels include fish (0.10 mg/kg) and tea (2,3). High concentrations in tea can be caused by high natural concentrations in tea plants or by the use of additives during growth or fermentation. Levels in dry tea can be 300 mg/kg (average 100 mg/kg), so 2? cups of tea contain approximately 0.4?.8 mg (2,6). In areas where water with a high fluoride content is used to prepare tea, the intake via tea can be several times greater. processed beverages provide 75% of fluoride intake, the best way to prevent fluorosis is by checking the concentration of fluoride in your drinking water (which shouldn’t be higher than 0.7 mg/L).

Dental uses

For dental purposes, fluoride preparations may contain low (0.25 mg per tablet; 1000 /500 mg of fluorine per kg of toothpaste) or high concentrations (liquids containing 10 000 mg/liter and gels containing 4000000 mg/kg are used for local applications) (2).

Estimated total exposure and relative contribution of drinking-water

Levels of daily exposure to fluoride depend mainly on the geographical area. In the Netherlands, the total daily intake is calculated to be 1.4?.0 mg of fluoride. Food seems to be the source of 80% of fluoride intake; intake from drinking water is 0.03?.68 mg/day and from toothpaste 0.2?.3 mg. For children, the total intake of food and water is decreased because of lower consumption. Intake of food and water relative to body weight is higher, however, and is further increased by the swallowing of toothpaste or fluoride tablets (up to 3.5 mg of fluoride per day) (2).

Daily intakes ranging from 0.46 to 3.6?.4 mg/day have been reported in several studies (6). Daily exposure in volcanic areas (e.g. the United Republic of Tanzania) may be as high as 30 mg for adults, mainly from drinking water intake (J.E.M. Smet, personal communication, 1990). In areas with relatively high concentrations of groundwater, drinking water becomes increasingly important as a source of fluoride. In some counties in China where coal has a high fluoride content, the average daily intake of fluoride ranged from 0.3 to 2.3 mg via air and from 1.8 to 8.9 mg via food (10).

Kinetics and metabolism in laboratory animals and humans

After oral uptake, water-soluble fluorides are rapidly and almost completely absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Fluorides less soluble in water are absorbed to a lesser degree. Absorbed fluoride is transported via the blood; with prolonged intake of fluoride from drinking water, concentrations in the blood are the same as those in drinking water, a relationship that remains valid up to a concentration in drinking water of 10 mg/liter. The distribution of fluoride is a rapid process. It is incorporated into teeth and bones; there is virtually no storage in soft tissues. Incorporation into teeth and skeletal tissues is reversible: after cessation of exposure, mobilization from these tissues takes place. Fluoride is excreted via urine, feces, and sweat (3,6,11).

Effects on laboratory animals and in vitro test systems

Most long-term studies are limited. In drinking-water studies with sodium fluoride, effects on skeletal tissues were observed. In a 2-year study in rats and mice (25 or 175 mg of sodium fluoride per liter of drinking water), dentine discoloration and dysplasia developed at both dose levels; osteosclerosis in the long bone was seen in the high-dose females only (12). In another recent 2-year oral study in rats, there were effects on the teeth (ameloblastic dysplasia, fractured and malformed incisors, enamel hypoplasia) and bones (subperiosteal hyperkeratosis) at all dose levels, including the lowest of 4 mg of sodium fluoride per kg of body weight per day (13).

Mutagenicity and related end-points

Many mutagenicity studies have been carried out with fluorides (usually sodium fluoride). Tests in bacteria and insects were negative, as were in vivo studies (11,12,14). In mammalian cells in vitro, fluoride causes genetic damage (including chromosomal aberrations) at cytotoxic concentrations only (=10 mg/liter), the mechanism for which is not known. This genetic effect is probably of limited relevance for practical human exposures (11).

Carcinogenicity

IARC evaluated the available studies in 1987 and concluded that the limited data provide inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals (14). In a recent study in which rats and mice were given sodium fluoride in drinking water at 11, 45, or 79 mg/liter (as fluoride ion), only the incidence of osteosarcomas in the bones of male rats increased (incidences 0/80, 0/51, 1/50, and 3/80 in the controls, low-, mid-, and high-dose groups, respectively). This increase was considered to provide equivocal evidence for a carcinogenic action in male rats; the study yielded no evidence for such an action in female rats or male or female mice (12). In another recent study, no carcinogenic effect was observed in rats given sodium fluoride in the diet at dose levels of 4, 10, or 25 mg/kg of body weight per day for 2 years (13).

Effects on humans

Fluorine is probably an essential element for animals and humans. For humans, however, the essentiality has not been demonstrated unequivocally, and no data indicating the minimum nutritional requirement are available. To produce signs of acute fluoride intoxication, minimum oral doses of at least 1 mg of fluoride per kg of body weight were required (11).

Many epidemiological studies of possible adverse effects of the long-term ingestion of fluoride via drinking water have been carried out. These studies establish that fluoride primarily produces effects on skeletal tissues (bones and teeth). Low concentrations protect against dental caries, especially in children. This protective effect increases with a concentration of up to about 2 mg of fluoride per liter of drinking water; the minimum concentration of fluoride in drinking water required to produce it is approximately 0.5 mg/liter.

Fluoride may give rise to mild dental fluorosis (prevalence: 12%) at drinking water concentrations between 0.9 and 1.2 mg/liter (15). This has been confirmed in numerous subsequent studies, including a recent large-scale survey carried out in China (16), which showed that, with drinking water containing 1 mg of fluoride per liter, dental fluorosis was detectable in 46% of the population examined. As a rough approximation, for areas with a temperate climate, manifest dental fluorosis occurs at concentrations above 1.5mg of fluoride per liter of drinking-water. In warmer areas, dental fluorosis occurs at lower concentrations in the drinking water because of the greater amounts of water consumed (3,6,10). It is also possible that, in areas where fluoride intake via routes other than drinking water (e.g. air, food) is elevated, dental fluorosis develops at concentrations in drinking water below 1.5 mg/liter (10).

Fluoride can also have more serious effects on skeletal tissues. Skeletal fluorosis (with adverse changes in bone structure) is observed when drinking water contains 3? mg of fluoride per liter. Crippling skeletal fluorosis develops when drinking-water contains over 10 mg of fluoride per liter (6). The US Environmental Protection Agency considers a concentration of 4 mg/liter to be protective against crippling skeletal fluorosis (17).

Several epidemiological studies are available on the possible association between fluoride in drinking water and cancer rates among the population. IARC evaluated these studies in 1982 and 1987 and considered that they provided inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans (1,14). The results of several epidemiological studies on the possible adverse effects of fluoride in drinking water on pregnancy outcomes are inconclusive (3,6,11).

It is known that persons suffering from certain forms of renal impairment have a lower margin of safety for the effects of fluoride than the average person. The data available on this subject are, however, too limited to allow a quantitative evaluation of the increased sensitivity to fluoride toxicity of such persons (3,11).

Guideline value

In 1987, IARC classified inorganic fluorides in Group 3 (14). Although there was equivocal evidence of carcinogenicity in one study in male rats, extensive epidemiological studies have shown no evidence of it in humans (12).

There is no evidence to suggest that the guideline value of 1.5 mg/liter set in 1984 needs to be revised. Concentrations above this value carry an increasing risk of dental fluorosis, and much higher concentrations lead to skeletal fluorosis. The value is higher than that recommended for artificial fluoridation of water supplies (18). In setting national standards for fluoride, it is particularly important to consider climatic conditions, water intake, and intake of fluoride from other sources (e.g. from food and air). In areas with high natural fluoride levels, it is recognized that the guideline value may be difficult to achieve in some circumstances with the treatment technology available.

Information sourced from:

Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd ed.

Vol. 2. Health criteria and other supporting information.

Geneva, World Health Organization, 1996. pp. 231-237.

Lead

Drinking Water Contaminants – Lead

By now we all know the consequences of lead poisoning. Heavy metal is toxic to children since it interferes with the development of the nervous system and can cause anemia, seizures, and even death.

Lead gets into the water via water pipes, and even copper pipes may be soldered with lead. While lead was banned from water pipes in 1986, pipes made today still contain some lead.

How common is lead poisoning in Australia?

However, based on the 1994 national survey of blood lead levels in the United States, we could reasonably expect 4.5% of the population, or 90 people in every 2000 Australians to be lead poisoned (that is, above the Australian goal of 10 µg/dL or micrograms per deciliter).20 Oct 2022

In Australia, little is heard about drinking water as a source of lead poisoning, probably because – unlike Europe and the US – lead pipe plumbing is not widespread in Australian homes. The late Lead Reference Centre (a section of the NSW Environment Protection Authority devoted to lead policy and education from 1997-9) has not even devoted a fact sheet to the subject. Nevertheless, it may be an issue worth investigating if your home was built before the 1930s when copper pipes replaced lead pipes.

The main concern, however, arises out of the common use of lead-based solder on brass fittings and copper pipes up until as recently as 1989. As a result of corrosion, there is a potential for the lead to leach into the water after prolonged contact. It is therefore the consumption of first flush water – the first cup of tea in the morning – which presents a hazard.

What is Lead and how is it used?

Lead is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. It is sometimes used in household plumbing materials or in water service lines used to bring water from the main to the home.

Why is Lead being regulated?

In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires EPA to determine safe levels of chemicals in drinking water which do or may cause health problems. These non-enforceable levels, based solely on possible health risks and exposure, are called Maximum Contaminant Level Goals.

The MCLG for lead has been set at zero because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

Since lead contamination generally occurs from corrosion of household lead pipes, it cannot be directly detected or removed by the water system. Instead, EPA is requiring water systems to control the corrosiveness of their water if the level of lead at home taps exceeds an Action Level.

The Action Level for lead has been set at 15 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to control this contaminant should it occur in drinking water at their customer’s home taps.

What are the health effects?

Short- and Long-term effects: Lead can cause a variety of adverse health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods. These effects may include interference with red blood cell chemistry, delays in normal physical and mental development in babies and young children, slight deficits in the attention span, hearing, and learning abilities of children, and slight increases in the blood pressure of some adults.

Long-term effects: Lead has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: stroke and kidney disease; cancer.

How much Lead is produced and released into the environment?

Lead may occur in drinking water either by contamination of the source water used by the water system or by corrosion of lead plumbing or fixtures. Corrosion of plumbing is by far the greatest cause for concern. All water is corrosive to metal plumbing materials to some degree. Grounding of household electrical systems to plumbing may also exacerbate corrosion. Over time, lead-containing plumbing materials will usually develop a scale that minimizes further corrosion of the pipe.

Lead is rarely found in source water, but lead mining and smelting operations may be sources of contamination. Eighty-eight percent of the lead mined in the US comes from seven mines in the New Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory lead compound releases to land and water totaled nearly 144 million lbs. These releases were primarily from lead and copper smelting industries. The largest releases occurred in Missouri, Arizona, and Montana. The largest direct release of water occurred in Ohio.

What happens to Lead when it is released into the environment?

When released to land, lead binds to soils and does not migrate to groundwater. In water, it binds to sediments. It does not accumulate in fish but does in some shellfish, such as mussels.

How will Lead be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for the lead became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples from household taps twice a year and analyze them to find out if the lead is present above 15 ppb in more than 10 percent of all homes tested. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant twice a year.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the Action level, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of lead so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for controlling lead: Corrosion control.

How will I know if Lead is in my drinking water?

If the levels of lead exceed the Action Level, Test for lead in your water by calling your local health department for free testing. Lead levels shouldn’t exceed 0.01 mg/L. Customers will be informed of what they can do at home to lower their exposure to lead. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: zero

Action level: 15 ppb

Mercury

What is Mercury and how is it used?

Mercury is a liquid metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. Electrical products such as dry-cell batteries, fluorescent light bulbs, switches, and other control equipment account for 50% of mercury used.

Why is Mercury being regulated?

The MCLG for mercury has been set at 2 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has also been set at 2 ppb because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

What are the health effects?

Short- or Long-term: EPA has found mercury to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: kidney damage.

Blood mercury levels above 100 ng/ml have been reported to be associated with clear signs of mercury poisoning in some individuals (e.g., poor muscle coordination, tingling, and numbness in fingers and toes).

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA in 1991 set an enforceable regulation for inorganic mercury, called a maximum contaminant level (MCL), at 0.002 mg/L or 2 ppb. Public water systems must ensure that your drinking water does not exceed the MCL for mercury.27 Sept 2022

How much Mercury is produced and released into the environment?

Large amounts of mercury are released naturally from the crust of the earth. Combustion of fossil fuels, metal smelters, cement manufacture, municipal landfills, sewage, metal refining operations, r most notably, from chloralkali plants are important sources of mercury release. Nearly 8 million lbs. of mercury were produced in the U.S. in 1986.

From 1987 to 1993, according to EPAs Toxic Chemical Release Inventory, mercury releases to land and water totaled nearly 68,000 lbs. These releases were primarily from chemical and allied industries. The largest releases occurred in Tennessee and Louisiana. The largest direct releases of water occurred in West Virginia and Alabama.

What happens to Mercury when it is released into the environment?

Mercury is unique among metals in that it can evaporate when released into water or soil. Also, microbes can convert inorganic forms of mercury to organic forms which can be accumulated by aquatic life.

How will Mercury be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation of mercury became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if mercury is present above 2 ppb. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of mercury so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing mercury: Coagulation/Filtration; Granular Activated Carbon; Lime softening; Reverse osmosis.

How will I know if Mercury is in my drinking water?

If the levels of mercury exceed the MCL, the system must notify the public via newspapers, radio, TV, and other means. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 2 ppb

MCL: 2 ppb

Microbes

Many U.S. citizens believe that thanks to our advanced technology and enlightened public policy we can consume without risk the food and water that are readily available to most of us, as citizens of a rich and privileged country. Some of those who subscribe to this buoyant and comforting attitude, however, may have lately experienced second thoughts. Because of various recent and widely reported incidents, many people are feeling concerned about the quality and safety of our food and water.

What pathogens are in the water in Australia?

Viruses cannot be simply cultured in the laboratory in the way bacteria are identified, and for this reason, it is difficult to detect viruses. Problem viruses identified in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines include adenovirus, enterovirus, hepatitis viruses, Norwalk viruses, and rotaviruses.

What microbes are found in tap water?

Of the many infectious microorganisms found in the environment, bacteria (such as Shigella, Escherichia coli, Vibrio, and Salmonella), viruses (such as Norwalk virus, and rotaviruses), and protozoans (such as Entamoeba, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium) may be found in water.

This is not surprising; some of these incidents have resulted in serious, widespread sickness, even death. For example, several incidents were reported of people becoming sick from eating undercooked beef at fast-food restaurants. In other incidents, more than 70 people became sick and one died in late 1996 from drinking Odwalla apple juice, a brand sold at health food stores, and last year lettuce from a small producer sickened at least 61 people in the U.S. Northeast. The latter two incidents were related to a strain of E. coli bacteria. Water too has raised public health concerns.

Microbial pathogens or contaminants in drinking water are being blamed for various gastrointestinal illnesses that have occurred in different parts of the country. U.S. citizens, in the unlikely event they had even given much thought to contaminated drinking water, would have considered it a condition out of the past or one associated with developing countries. Now waterborne sickness from microbial contaminants, some with strange and unlikely sounding names-e.g., Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Legionella, and Norwalk virus-has become a seemingly modern concern even for people living in the United States.

Estimates project from seven to about 30 million Americans each year develop a gastrointestinal illness, possibly from drinking contaminated water. EPA also provides a wide range of figures when estimating the nation’s annual medical and lost productivity costs due to waterborne illnesses, from $3 billion to $22 billion. Of much greater concern are the deaths related to microbial contaminants in drinking water.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates 900 to 1,000 people die each year from microbial illnesses from U.S. drinking water. Other estimates run as high as 1,200 deaths. Although difficult to pin down, such figures indicate the existence of a serious problem.

Microbial Contaminants in History

Microorganisms are present everywhere in our environment, in soil, air, food, and water. Also called microbes, microorganisms are living organisms, generally observable only through a microscope. Our exposure to them causes harmless microbial flora to establish in our bodies, although some microbes are pathogens and can cause diseases. These diseases are considered waterborne if the pathogens are transmitted by water, to infect humans or animals that ingest the contaminated water. Diseases transmitted by water are primarily those found in the intestinal discharges of humans or animals The presence of microbial contaminants in drinking water has plagued humans throughout history.

Waterborne microbial pathogens cause a whole range of diarrheal diseases. The hazards of fecal contamination and the principles of basic sanitation were recognized early. The occurrence of such outbreaks alerted people to the hazards of drinking contaminated water and prompted investigations into ways to prevent the occurrence of waterborne illnesses. Public health officials eventually achieved success in controlling the more common forms of waterborne diseases, at least in the United States and other developed countries.

Progress was due to the adoption of public health measures as well as the implementation of important water treatment techniques, such as filtration, disinfection, and sewage treatment. Some believed the battle, if not won, was at least under control.

Emerging microbial Contaminants

Waterborne microbial contaminants, however, have attracted renewed attention, both within the scientific community and among the public. Once thought to be under control, they are now referred to as “emerging drinking water contaminants.” What is emerging is an expanded awareness of the presence of previously undetected microbial contaminants in drinking water and their effects on human health.

Also emerging in the field of environmental microbiology, as new microbial pathogens are being discovered and research is underway to develop improved methods for detecting and treating microbial in drinking water. Microsporidia is an example of an emerging pathogen that is attracting attention. Potentially waterborne, this pathogen is recognized as causing disease among AIDS patients, although healthy persons also may be susceptible to microsporidia.

Because of its small size, microsporidia may survive filtration, and studies thus far indicate that the pathogen will be fairly resistant to many drinking water disinfectants. With more research and the development of improved detection methods, researchers will be able to better determine the occurrence of microsporidia, both in humans and the environment.

Some researchers believe this microorganism may eventually need to be monitored and controlled in drinking water supplies. H. pylori is another emerging pathogen. Common among people exposed to poor hygienic conditions from childhood, H. pylori also has been found, although much less frequently, among the socio-economic advantaged. Its source is not known, but water is thought to be a likely route of transmission. H. pylori causes inflammation of the stomach and seems to be a factor in the development of duodenal ulcers. It also is thought to play a causal role in the chain of events leading to gastric cancer. The occurrence of H. pylori ranges from less than one percent of the population of industrialized nations to three to eight percent in developing countries. Researchers continue to study this pathogen.

These and other microbial contaminants are increasingly attracting the concern of public health authorities as well as an interdisciplinary array of experts in such fields as microbiology, engineering, epidemiology, and risk assessment.

Where Do They Come From?

Waterborne diseases result from drinking fecally contaminated water. To explain the presence of microbial contaminants in drinking water is to describe a circuitous route, from a human or animal source back to a human or animal via drinking water. Microbial contaminants follow a fecal-oral route. Bacteria, viruses, and protozoa are the microorganism groups containing pathogens of primary concern in the study of waterborne disease.

Human sources account for viruses, while both animal and human waste contribute protozoa to water. For example, cattle are considered the source of much Cryptosporidium, and Giardia is often traced to beavers. Both Cryptosporidium and Giardia are protozoa. Each day the average human excretes about 38 grams of urea, mostly urine, and 20 grams of solids in feces. The excreta contains billions of microbes. These microbes cannot only survive but also multiply in water and are made up of a wide range of organisms, including pathogenic microbes, which even healthy people excrete.

Others who have a disease or who are carriers of a disease-producing microorganism are a more obvious source of waterborne infections. Estimates indicate that about five percent of those who have contracted an enteric or intestinal disease remain life-long carriers, even after having recovered from the disease. That these intestinal microbial contaminants can infect a drinking water source may at first seem puzzling, especially to citizens of a country that prides itself on its public health standards.

Yet through natural flow or accident, various types of water can interconnect and flow together. For example, stormwater runoff from residential, rural, and urban areas can carry waste material from domestic pets and wildlife, to collect in surface waters and even enter groundwater. Through accident or equipment failure, sewage, a rich source of microbial contamination, might come into contact with drinking water.

Also, defective on-site wastewater disposal or septic systems in rural and other residential areas can contribute large numbers of coliforms and other bacteria to both surface water and groundwater. These contaminants occur widely and are not limited to areas inhabited by humans. A deer or other wildlife feeding by a clear-flowing, pristine stream in an untrammeled forested area is an appealing image. This hardy specimen of wildlife, however, can contribute contaminants to the stream to infect a downstream hiker enjoying a sip of spring water direct from the source. Cattle also add contaminants to water in isolated areas. Cattle graze many backcountry areas and drink from streams that then flow to other areas or into other water sources. Fecal contamination can occur in indirect and seemingly unlikely ways. Authorities suspect the contamination of Odwalla apple juice was caused when the processing plant pressed a decayed apple that had fallen to the ground and came into contact with feces, possibly from a deer. This sickened 70 people and resulted in one death.

Nitrate/Nitrite

Nitrates and nitrites are nitrogen-oxygen chemical units that combine with various organic and inorganic compounds. Once taken into the body, nitrates are converted into nitrites. The greatest use of nitrates is as a fertilizer.

Danger Nitrate and Nitrite

The MCL for nitrates has been set at 10 ppm, and for nitrites at 1 ppm, because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: Excessive levels of nitrate in drinking water have caused serious illness and sometimes death. The serious illness in infants (aka Blue Baby Syndrome) is due to the conversion of nitrate to nitrite by the body, which can interfere with the oxygen-carrying capacity of the child’s blood. This can be an acute condition in which health deteriorates rapidly over days. Symptoms include shortness of breath and blueness of the skin.

Long-term: Nitrates and nitrites have the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: diuresis, increased starchy deposits, and hemorrhaging of the spleen.

How much Nitrates/Nitrites are produced and released into the environment?

Most nitrogenous materials in natural waters tend to be converted to nitrate, so all sources of combined nitrogen, particularly organic nitrogen, and ammonia, should be considered as potential nitrate sources. Primary sources of organic nitrates include human sewage and livestock manure, especially feedlots.

The primary inorganic nitrates which may contaminate drinking water are potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate both of which are widely used as fertilizers.

What happens to Nitrates/Nitrites when they are released into the environment?

Since they are very soluble and do not bind to soils, nitrates have a high potential to migrate to groundwater. Because they do not evaporate, nitrates/nitrites are likely to remain in the water until consumed by plants or other organisms.

How will Nitrates/Nitrites be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for nitrates/nitrites became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples at least once a year and analyze them to find out if nitrates/nitrites are present above 50 percent of their MCLs. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above their MCLs, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of nitrates/nitrites so that they are consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing nitrates/nitrites: Ion exchange, Reverse Osmosis, and Electrodialysis.

The MCLG for nitrates has been set at 10 parts per million (ppm), and for nitrites at 1 ppm because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems.

Drinking Water Standards

(1ppm): EPA

Perchlorate

Perchlorate’s Risk Is Clear

Article Summary: Bottled spring water is not being tested for perchlorate and plain carbon filters remove little or no perchlorate

Perchlorate’s risks are clear, but not at what levels. The Associated Press

What is perchlorate?

Perchlorate is an oxygen-rich chemical used in rocket fuel and other explosives, including fireworks and flares. It easily dissolves in water and has been found to contaminate sites. It is made up of chlorine and oxygen and can combine with sodium, potassium, or ammonium to form salts. Ammonium perchlorate is the form most frequently used in rocket fuel.

Is perchlorate harmful?

Salt is a toxin, but there is disagreement about how much is bad for you when ingested. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is creating drinking water standards for pollutants. “There’s no question that it is a very big risk. The question is at what level do you avoid that risk?” said Kevin Mayer, the EPA’s perchlorate coordinator for the Southwest.

How does perchlorate affect human health?

Scientists know it interferes with the way the body takes iodide into the thyroid and can disrupt the gland’s regulation of metabolism. In developing fetuses and newborns, iodine (the body reduces iodide to iodine) deficiency can cause mental retardation.

Do any studies show it’s harmful?

A 2000 Arizona study found an increase in abnormal thyroid levels in Yuma, Ariz., newborns whose mothers drank water from the Colorado River that contained five to seven parts per billion perchlorates. Dr. Ross Brechner, the author of the study and now Maryland’s state epidemiologist, said he could show only an association between perchlorate exposure and abnormal thyroid function. Further work is needed, he said, but he said he would recommend that pregnant women be conservative and not drink the water.

Other perchlorate research, most of it funded by industry and the Pentagon, suggests moderate doses might not affect healthy adults. “At very low levels, I think levels below 200 parts per billion, you wouldn’t have any effect on human health,” said Dr. John Gibbs, medical director for former perchlorate manufacturer Kerr-McGee Corp.

Q: What are the standards for perchlorate in drinking water?

A: The EPA is considering a standard of one part per billion, which would be the equivalent of a grain of salt in an Olympic-sized pool.

Q: Is showering or bathing in contaminated water a threat?

A: No. The skin provides a barrier, the EPA’s Mayer said.

Q: Is store-bought bottled water tested for perchlorate?

A: There is no state or federal requirement that bottled water be tested for perchlorate, although some bottlers can do so voluntarily. Mountain spring water is unlikely to contain the toxin. Tainted tap water that has been distilled or treated by reverse osmosis and then bottled is likely to be free of the toxin. Carbon filtering removes little or no perchlorate from polluted water, Mayer said.

Q: Should you avoid cooking with tap water if you suspect it contains perchlorate?

A: Cooking with perchlorate-laced water poses the same risk as drinking. However, when food is cooked and drained, any perchlorate would likely remain with the water, Mayer said.

PFAS

What are PFAS?

PFAS are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a group of over 4000 chemicals. Some PFAS are very effective at resisting heat, stains, grease and water, making them useful chemicals for a range of applications including:

Stain and water protection for carpets, fabric, furniture and apparel
Paper coating (including for some food packaging)
Metal plating
Photographic materials
Aviation hydraulic fluid
Cosmetics and sunscreen
Medical devices.

Because they are heat resistant and film-forming in water, some PFAS have also been used as very effective ingredients in fire-fighting foams.

In Australia, the historical use of PFAS in fire-fighting foams has resulted in increased levels being detected at sites like airports, Defence bases, and other sites where fire-fighting training has been conducted, or where fire suppression systems are installed for extinguishing liquid-fuel fires. Increased environmental levels of PFAS have also been found near some industrial areas, effluent outfalls and landfill sites. Outside of these areas, it is unlikely that increased levels of PFAS would be present in the local environment.

Unfortunately, the properties that make some PFAS useful in many industrial applications and particularly in fire-fighting foams, also make them problematic in the environment. The PFAS of greatest concern are highly mobile in water, which means they travel long distances from their source-point; they do not fully break down naturally in the environment; and they are toxic to a range of animals.

While understanding about the human health effects of long-term PFAS exposure is still developing, there is global concern about the persistence and mobility of these chemicals in the environment. Many countries have discontinued, or are progressively phasing out, their use. The Australian Government has worked since 2002 to reduce the use of certain PFAS.

How might PFAS affect us?

Most people in Australia (and in many other countries) are likely to have very low levels of PFAS in their bodies, through exposure to everyday household items like carpet and upholstery protective sprays, cosmetics, sunscreens, and some non-stick cookware. But people living near sites where PFAS have been released into the environment in large amounts (usually due to the use of PFAS-containing fire-fighting foams) may have higher levels in their bodies – particularly if they have been drinking contaminated bore water. These people are understandably concerned about what this might mean for their health.

Many scientific studies have investigated potential health effects resulting from PFAS exposure, but the results have been mixed, and scientific understanding is still developing as more research is undertaken. In late 2017, the Australian Government established an Expert Health Panel to advise the Australian Government on the available evidence, including key international reports and views from the public and other stakeholders.

PFAS in Bottled Water:

Addressing PFAS Contamination:

Protection:

How many and what type of sites could be affected by PFAS?

Because PFAS have been used in a wide variety of applications over time and they do not fully break down naturally, they are present in low levels almost everywhere in the environment. Increased levels of PFAS can be found near sewage treatment plants, landfills, and places where fire-fighting foams have been used (e.g. mining operations, fuel refineries and storage facilities, airports, fire-training grounds and transport infrastructure). Consequently, these chemicals are found in many places and are not just limited to Commonwealth-owned sites.

The Department of Defence has a comprehensive PFAS Investigation and Management Program underway, which has identified around 27 Defence sites that are now either undergoing investigations or have reached the stage of determining management options. Airservices Australia’s National PFAS Management Program is also conducting assessments of sites where it has provided aviation fire and rescue services.

The Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts is undertaking the Australian Government’s $130.5 million PFAS Airports Investigation Program at airports where the Commonwealth historically provided firefighting services using PFAS-containing foams.

State and territory governments are conducting their own investigations of state-owned sites. For example, fire fighters may have used fire-fighting foams containing PFAS at training sites. Visit our PFAS Advice page for information about PFAS activities in your jurisdiction.

What does it mean if I live in a PFAS contaminated area?

The Australian Government is working closely with affected communities to help them understand what PFAS contamination means for them and their daily lives.

Advice on reducing exposure to PFAS will vary with each location due to local circumstances so community members should follow the most current advice provided by the investigating agency’s human health risk assessment and state or territory advice for their local area. People wanting to discuss personal health issues should talk to their local GP.

What about future contamination by PFAS?

Since 2002, the Australian Government Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme (formally NICNAS) has published a number of alerts on PFAS. AICIS has recommended that:

PFOS, PFOA and other related chemicals should continue to be restricted to essential uses where less hazardous alternatives are not available.
PFOS-based fire-fighting foam should only be used in essential applications (i.e. not be used for training purposes).
Industry should actively seek alternatives to and phase out PFAS and PFAS-related substances of concern.
Existing stocks of PFAS fire-fighting foams should be disposed of responsibly on expiry.
Importers and users of PFAS should be aware of international activities relating to PFAS.
Importers should ensure that alternative chemicals are less toxic and not persistent in the environment.
Up-to-date information on safe use of PFAS and handling should be provided on labels and Safety Data Sheets.

A large body of work is underway across Australia – both to manage existing contamination and to increase our ability to prevent further contamination from PFAS and other industrial chemicals of concern.

How are people exposed to PFAS?

Most people living in Australia will have detectable levels of PFAS in their blood. Exposure to PFAS can be from a variety of sources such as food packaging, non-stick cookware and stain protection applications for fabrics and carpets.

There are a number of specific sites across Australia, where concentrated releases of PFAS have resulted in increased levels of PFAS in surrounding soil, water and produce. Visit our PFAS Advice page for links to identified investigations areas near you.

For most people in PFAS affected areas, the highest risk of exposure is likely to be through the consumption of contaminated groundwater (i.e. bore water) and food grown using contaminated ground water.

Outside of the identified investigation areas, unless you live near industrial areas, landfill sites, or firefighting training grounds where PFAS-containing foams were used, it is unlikely that increased levels of PFAS would be present in your local environment.

The Department of Health has produced a factsheet on exposure pathways:

PFAS Health Effects and Exposure Pathways – Factsheet (PDF)

If there are no proven harmful human health effects from exposure to PFAS, why have precautions been put in place?

The precautions put in place are just that – precautions. While we know these chemicals can persist in humans, animals and the environment, there is currently limited understanding of the human health effects of long-term PFAS exposure. Therefore, as a precaution governments in Australia recommend that exposure be reduced wherever possible while research into any potential health effects continues.

How can I find out what the level of PFAS in my blood means for me?If you have your blood tested for PFAS, you should talk to your GP about what the results mean for you.

A blood test can measure the level of PFAS in a person’s blood. If PFAS is detected, this tells a person that they have been exposed to PFAS. However, these tests are not routine and there is at present insufficient scientific evidence for a medical practitioner to be able to tell a person whether their blood level will make them sick now or later in life, or if any current health problems are related to the PFAS levels found in their blood. As such, blood tests have no diagnostic or prognostic value.

At a population level, blood tests can inform a community that they have been exposed to PFAS at a level above that of the general population. Monitoring pooled community blood samples over time may help determine the success of exposure reduction measures in reducing blood levels of PFAS.

Is my food safe to eat?

Australia has an effective, robust food regulation system in place to ensure the safety of our food.

For the general food supply, it is considered extremely unlikely that consumption of a specific food group over a period would all be from food sourced locally from a contaminated site. For example, milk on the supermarket shelf does not normally come from just one dairy farm, but is sourced from many farms, mixed and distributed through retail outlets. While this may mean low levels of PFAS are still present, Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) found dietary exposure to PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS from the general food supply is unlikely to exceed the Tolerable Daily Intakes.

Data available to date suggests that dietary exposure to PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS in the general food supply is likely to be low. In 2016, FSANZ performed an analysis of PFAS chemicals in a range of foods representative of the Australian diet, sampled from outlets such as supermarkets, corner stores, delicatessens, markets and takeaway shops, representing the buying habits of most of the community. The analysis found no detections for PFOA and only two detections for PFOS out of 50 foods tested. The concentrations of PFOS were at very low levels and similar to those reported internationally for the same foods.

FSANZ is undertaking further monitoring of PFAS in the general food supply as part of the next routine Australian Total Diet Study. Visit FSANZ’s website for more information.

State and territory governments are responsible for food regulation in Australia and are the appropriate authorities to issue food advisories to the public regarding any food contaminant, including PFAS.

What should I do if I produce food on or near a site affected by PFAS contamination?

Where food safety regulators consider action is required to manage exposure through food, maximum limits for contaminants in the environment are set. To date, no maximum limits have been set for PFAS contaminants in food by Australian regulators nor internationally. Consequently there are no current restrictions on domestic or international trade in agricultural or aquaculture products.

Some people do consume certain foods which are primarily sourced near a contaminated site – for example, farmers who raise and consume their own animals. These people may reach the Tolerable Daily Intake for PFOS and PFHxS when they consume their usual amounts of that food. Because of this, people living near PFAS contaminated sites may be advised by the investigating agency or the state health authority to reduce their consumption of some of their own produce to minimise PFAS exposure. This advice is site-specific, is provided directly to the individuals affected, and does not apply to the general population.

SAFEMEAT has published a factsheet on PFAS for producers. SAFEMEAT is a partnership between the red meat and livestock industry and state and federal governments of Australia to ensure products achieve the highest standards of safety and hygiene from the farm to the consumer.

For more information, visit our PFAS in food and water page and our PFAS Advice page.

Can I eat the fish I catch in water that contains PFAS?

Fish (or other aquatic animals) that live in PFAS-contaminated waters may contain PFAS. In some instances, if you consume too much fish from PFAS-contaminated waters, you may exceed the Tolerable Daily Intakes for PFOS, PFOA and PFHxS.

Where fishing waters are near a PFAS contaminated site, the investigating agency or the state or territory government will provide advice on whether eating the fish is safe. This advice may include precautionary signage erected in affected areas. Visit our PFAS Advice page to find who to contact about the most current advice for your fishing location.

Can I swim in water containing PFAS?

Where recreational waters are near a PFAS contaminated site, the investigating agency or the state or territory government will provide advice on whether swimming is safe. This advice may include precautionary signage erected in affected areas. Visit our PFAS Advice page to find who to contact about the most current advice for your swimming location.

The National Health and Medical Research Council has published recreational water guidelines for PFAS. For more information, see:

Is my drinking water safe?

For most people living in PFAS affected areas, the highest risk of exposure is likely to be through the consumption of contaminated groundwater (i.e. bore water) and food grown using contaminated groundwater.

Precautionary advice on reducing exposure to PFAS will vary with each location due to local conditions, so you should follow the most current advice provided by the investigating agency or the state or territory government advice for your area. This advice may include precautionary signage erected in affected areas.

Visit our PFAS Advice page to find who to contact about the most current advice in your location.

The National Health and Medical Research Council has published drinking water guidelines for PFAS. For more information, see:

Australian Drinking Water Guidelines

What action is the Australian Government taking on PFAS?

Australian Governments have taken a precautionary approach to managing existing PFAS contamination, working to prevent or reduce environmental and human PFAS exposure wherever possible. Efforts have mainly been directed at dealing with contamination created by historical use of these chemicals by:

Conducting investigations across Australia to establish a greater understanding of the extent of contamination and likely impacts on surrounding communities, and where necessary, developing management strategies tailored to the unique conditions of the site.
Where identified, ensuring PFAS exposure pathways are broken wherever possible, primarily by providing alternative water where necessary and providing advice to affected communities on other ways to reduce their exposure.
Providing community support, information and advice.
Investing in closing the knowledge gaps on the health effects of PFAS, and developing remediation strategies, through funding research.
Reviewing environmental legislation with a view to better regulation of PFAS and other emerging contaminants.
Developing guidance for all site managers to respond to PFAS contamination appropriately.
Increasing coordination and collaboration between all levels of government and across the Commonwealth.

Why are there so many different government agencies involved in responding to PFAS contamination?

Responsibility for regulation of industrial chemicals at each stage of their ‘lifecycle’ is shared across the Commonwealth, states and territories. The lifecycle of a chemical includes manufacture, import, export, use, disposal and destruction. All Australian Governments have been working together to develop a system that will better manage chemical use. For further information, visit the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water website.

Governments across Australia also came together to develop the Intergovernmental Agreement on a National Framework for Responding to PFAS Contamination, to improve communication, information-sharing and collaboration to ensure better outcomes for affected communities. The Intergovernmental Agreement was reviewed by the Commonwealth and state and territory governments during 2019.

Why does it take so long to release site investigation results?

Site investigations involve thorough and detailed scientific work. These usually take between two to three years each and site owners are working towards completing them in 12-18 months. The Government is committed to being open and transparent with potentially affected communities about the progress and findings of these investigations.

The results of site investigations are released as quickly as possible and those living in affected communities are the first people we talk to.

Why hasn’t the Australian Government ratified the Stockholm Convention?

To ratify the listing of PFOS and PFOA under the Stockholm Convention, Australia must first be able to meet the associated management obligations.

To enable this, governments are working together to establish a National Standard for the Environmental Risk Management of Industrial Chemicals. The National Standard will set a nationally consistent environmental management approach for the use and disposal of industrial chemicals, including PFAS. The National Standard will be established by Commonwealth framework legislation, and implemented in regulatory frameworks in each jurisdiction. Work on framework legislation to establish the National Standard is currently underway. The National Standard will also form part of a national legislative framework that would support the Australian Government in deciding whether to ratify the listing of PFOA and PFOA (and any future listings) under the Stockholm Convention.

Once the Australian government can be confident in our ability to meet the obligations required under the Stockholm Convention, the Parliamentary Joint Standing Committee on Treaties will consider whether ratifying the listing of PFOS is in the national interest. This is part of Australia’s treaty-making process.

For more information on the Stockholm Convention, visit our International Cooperation page.

Are PFAS containing fire-fighting foams still being used in Australia?

Fire-fighting foams containing PFAS have been used in fire training drills and emergencies by the public and private sectors in Australia and worldwide for more than three decades.

The Australian Government has worked since 2002 to reduce the use of certain PFAS. As far as we know at this point in time, the biggest source of concentrated emissions of PFAS in Australia is from historical use of PFAS-containing fire-fighting foams, particularly at fire-fighting training grounds. Use of these fire-fighting foams has been significantly reduced and discontinued in most cases.

In 2003 Airservices Australia began phasing out PFAS-containing fire-fighting foams at all civilian airports where it operates, and has not used them at civilian-only airports since 2010.

From 2004, the Department of Defence commenced phasing out its use of PFOS and PFOA-containing fire-fighting foams and switched to ‘Ansulite’, which only contains trace elements of PFOS/PFOA and is only used in emergency situations or in controlled environments to test equipment. The Department of Defence is currently undertaking a review of alternative fire-fighting foams that meet capability requirements as well as environmental protection requirements.

Are PFAS fire-fighting foams used to combat Australian bushfires?

Firefighters sometimes add chemical products to the water they use to fight fires. These chemical products are broadly categorised as ‘foams’, ‘gels’, or ‘retardants’.

Foams are either sprayed onto a fire directly by a firefighter or onto threatened structures in the form of compressed air foam. Gels are sprayed onto structures in the path of a fire by a firefighter and provide a protective layer that stops the structure from catching alight. Retardants are typically dropped from an aircraft either directly onto the fire, or in front of the fire to form a fire-break.

The foams that are used to fight bushfires, or fires involving ordinary combustible material, are usually ‘Class A’ foams. Class A foams do not contain PFAS. The foams that are used to fight liquid fuel fires (for example: petrol, diesel, avgas, lubrication oil) are ‘Class B’ foams. Some Class B foams contain PFAS, but these types of foams are not intended for use on bushfires. Gels and retardants do not contain PFAS chemicals.

Are products used for fighting bushfires toxic?

The foam, gel and retardant chemical products that are used to fight Australian bushfires have undergone stringent testing by the United States Forest Service. This data has been analysed and accepted by the Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council, which is the peak body for public sector fire, land management and emergency service organisations in Australia and New Zealand.

The chemicals contained in the foams, gels and retardants used in Australian bushfire fighting should not have long-lasting toxic effects in the environment.

What’s the difference between PFOA (C-8) and PFAS?

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (or ‘PFAS’) are a group of over 4,000 manufactured chemicals. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is one member of the PFAS family. PFOA is sometimes referred to as ‘C-8’ because it contains a chain of eight carbon atoms.

PFOA, along with perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxS) are probably the most well-known members of the PFAS family. All three of these chemicals are considered to be ‘long-chain’ PFAS because they contain a long chain of carbon atoms that are fully saturated with fluorine. All three chemicals also contain a ‘head group’ at one end of the chain, which plays a significant role in the molecule’s relative toxicity.

PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS are chemicals of concern because they are highly mobile in water (so travel long distances from their source); do not fully break down naturally in the environment; and are toxic to a range of animals. However, not all PFAS have these properties. For example, PFAS with short carbon chains are generally of lower concern than the long chain PFAS like PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS.

Is PFOA manufactured in Australia?

The Australian Government collects and reviews data on chemicals that are manufactured in Australia through the Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme (AICIS). The information gathered by AICIS indicates that PFOA is not manufactured in Australia. This is also the case for PFOS and PFHxS. The information from AICIS also indicates Teflon is not manufactured in Australia.

What’s Teflon made of? What’s the link between Teflon and PFOA?

Teflon^TM is a trade name for the chemical ‘polytetrafluoroethylene’ (PTFE). PTFE is a member of the PFAS family but it has a different structure from PFOA, PFOS or PFHxS, which gives it different properties.

There are several important differences between the properties of Teflon (PTFE) and PFOA/PFOS/PFHxS:

PTFE is not soluble in water – PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS are soluble in water.
PTFE is too large and too insoluble to be absorbed by organisms – PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS are readily absorbed by organisms that eat/drink contaminated food/water.
PTFE is not toxic to animals – PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS have a range of toxic effects in animals.

These differences mean that regulators do not consider PTFE (Teflon) to be a chemical of concern to human health or the environment.

The link between PFOA and Teflon is that PFOA is used to help make Teflon. However, it is important to emphasise that PFOA is not an ingredient in Teflon—it is simply added to the reaction vessel to help make Teflon, and is removed at the end of the process. Therefore, Teflon should not contain PFOA. There are strict standards in place to help ensure that Teflon does not contain PFOA.

Could the same thing that happened in Dark Waters happen here in Australia?

Dark Waters showed a chemical manufacturer dumping large quantities of contaminated waste into the environment. This waste came from a plant that manufactured Teflon using PFOA. Large quantities of contaminated waste (at least 7000 tonnes) were buried and the PFOA leached out of the waste containers into the environment. This led to very high concentrations of PFOA in the ground water, creeks and rivers in the surrounding area.

There are no manufacturing plants for PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS or Teflon (PTFE) in Australia so the same thing should not happen here.

Radioactivity

Many of the contaminants found in public drinking water sources occur naturally. For example, radioactive radium and uranium are found in small amounts in almost all rock and soil and can dissolve in water. Radon, a radioactive gas, created through the decay of radium, can also naturally occur in groundwater.14 June 2023 https://www.epa.gov ›

The Australian Drinking Water Quality guidance level in drinking water is 0.5 Bq/l for gross alpha and 0.5 Bq/l for gross beta (excluding K40 activity) activity. Modeling has demonstrated that at these levels of alpha and beta activity, the annual dose is unlikely to exceed the 1 mSv limit. https://www.awqc.com.au ›

What is a safe level of radioactivity in water?

Safe drinking water should have: 15 picocuries of alpha particles per liter of water (pCi/L) or less. 5 pCi/L of combined radium 226/228 or less. 20 pCi/L of uranium or less.8 Dec 2022

https://www.health.state.mn.us ›

Is radioactivity a water pollutant?

The application of radioactive elements in nuclear weapons, X-rays, MRI, and other medical equipment causes their exposure to human beings. Dumping of these radioactive wastes in surface water bodies causes water pollution.13 Dec 2021

How does uranium get into drinking water?

How does uranium get into drinking water? Uranium gets into drinking water when groundwater dissolves minerals that contain uranium. Elevated levels of uranium are more likely to be found in drilled wells than in dug wells or surface water supplies https://novascotia.ca

The allowable level established by FDA for uranium in bottled water is 30 micrograms per liter of water.20 Sept 2018 https://www.fda.gov ›

The nuclear disaster in Japan earlier this year showed the world that the radiation threat is very serious. Radioactive particles can spread easily through underground water systems and thus affects all waterways and ecosystems.

Concentrations of uranium above the levels set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) cause kidney damage and increase your risk for certain cancers. Meanwhile, radioactive iodine accumulates in the thyroid and causes thyroid cancer as it decays.

Nuclear power plants exist in many countries and even some minerals are naturally radioactive so there’s nowhere to hide. Radioactive pollution is also cumulative, which means it builds up in your body over your lifetime. Unfortunately drinking contaminated water is one of the primary methods we are exposed to radioactivity.

Radon is a colorless and odorless, naturally occurring radioactive gas that is formed by the radioactive decay of the element radium. This gas can dissolve in groundwater and volatilize when water is released from a faucet or showerhead. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recommends that public water suppliers remove radon from their water if levels exceed 300 picocuries per Liter.

The two principal concerns for radon are stomach cancer from ingesting radon and lung cancer from inhalation of radon byproducts. The health risk of radon inhalation is believed to be many times greater than the risk resulting from direct ingestion of radon contained in water. It has been estimated that there is an increased lifetime stomach cancer risk of between 0.25 to 1.0 percent per 100,000 pCi/L in a water supply, although there is no direct evidence of this. Radon in water is emitted into the air, especially where water is agitated or sprayed (shower, washing machine). The EPA has not set a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for radon in drinking water at this time but recommends that any level of radon above 300 pCi/L should be a concern.

The American Medical Association (AMA) was very concerned about charlatans fleecing the public by marketing devices that did not produce suitable radioactivity. Therefore, the AMA established certification guidelines that were in effect from 1916 through 1929. The crocks and emanators that could not generate water that had more than 2 microcuries of radon per liter within 24 hours did not get AMA approval. This radon level is over 6,000 times the level that EPA now considers safe in drinking water. While we no longer use slogans such as “for a healthy glow, drink radiation,” the water-drinking community is setting recognizable standards for the once-popular radon.

Does bottled water have uranium?

The allowable level established by FDA for uranium in bottled water is 30 micrograms per liter of water.20 Sept 2018

Salmonella

We have all heard that E-coli and Salmonella contaminate our food, but we have never been too fussed to find out what they are. Are they the same thing or are they even have any common with each other? Let’s find out!

How common is salmonella in Australia?

In Australia: There are at least 4.1 million cases of gastro each year. On average, there are more than 230,000 cases of Campylobacter and 55,000 cases of Salmonella each year.13 Oct 2017

https://www.health.qld.gov.au › out

What is the mortality rate of Salmonella in Australia?

We estimated 90,833 (90% CrI 51,583- 158,265) cases, 4,312 (90% CrI 3,335-11,091) hospitalizations, and 19 (90% CrI 15-22) deaths from salmonellosis in Australia circa 2015 (Table 1).

https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au ›

What salmonella strains are in Australia?

Unlike in the United States and Europe, Salmonella serotype Typhimurium is the most common cause of human Salmonella infection and outbreaks in Australia (Ford et al., 2016). Salmonella serotype Enteritidis is not- demic in Australian egg-laying flocks and makes up only about 6% of nontyphoidal S. https://www.health.qld.gov.au ›

Salmonella and E.coli are the same in the sense that they are both bacteria, but are completely different types of bacteria. Salmonella is the name of the group of over 2,500 types of bacteria that most commonly cause food poisoning in humans and animals. Salmonella is spread by ingesting foods that are contaminated by salmonellae such as raw eggs, raw meat, eggs, fruits, vegetables, and contaminated water. Contamination takes place when these foods come into contact with animal or human feces and are not cooked properly. Symptoms of Salmonella are diarrhea, vomiting, fever, cramps, headache, and lasting around 4-7 days. Symptoms can get more serious in infants and the elderly but will eventually go away by themselves. If symptoms persist for more than 3 days and do not improve, a fever higher than 102 Fahrenheit, bloody stools, or signs of dehydration, then professional medical assistance should be involved.

E-coli is the name of the bacteria that live in the intestines without (Most of the time) causing any problems. However, several strains of E-coli can cause food poisoning and result in serious issues where bleeding and hemorrhaging occur. You can get E-coli by eating foods that have been improperly processed or harvested that may have come into contact with animal or human feces. Other causes include contaminated water and person-to-person contact. Contaminated water includes untreated private well water, not properly maintained pool water, etc. Personal contact is also another transmitting source of E. coli, this mainly comes from not washing hands after touching contaminated surfaces. Most commonly, E-coli is recognized by those having symptoms that involve bloody stool, in which case these people should be taken to immediate hospital care.

Salmonella and E-coli outbreaks are both rooted in the contamination of feces but are different bacteria that pose different risks. Now that you have educated yourself on the differences, it is most important to keep yourself healthy and free from these bacteria.

How to protect yourself

The best way to avoid any infection from E-coli and Salmonella is to maintain hygiene. Always thoroughly wash your vegetables and fruits as they may have come into contact with dirt that may have been contaminated by feces. E-coli and Salmonella can be passed by a simple shake of a hand from someone who hasn’t washed their hands after relieving their bowel. Thus, always wash your hands before eating.

Secondly, it is always important to cook your meat thoroughly, especially chicken. Those who love to have their meat nice and rare, pose a risk of catching one of these infections. Lastly, it is important to maintain clean drinking water in your household so that your family does not consume E-coli or Salmonella from your water source. Bottled water or a purified drinking water system will be your best bet for safe water!

Should I drink filtered water in Australia?

By installing a quality water filter system, you are safeguarding the water in your home against any potential bad tastes and odours. Should cysts such as giardia and cryptosporidium be in the water supply you are protected against these with a quality water filter system.

Read Next: Tips on Protecting Your Home from E coli

Selenium

Drinking Water Contaminants – Selenium

What is Selenium and how is it used?

Selenium is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. The greatest use of selenium compounds is in electronic and photocopier components, but they are also widely used in glass, pigments, rubber, metal alloys, textiles, petroleum, medical therapeutic agents, and photographic emulsions.

Why is Selenium being regulated?

The MCLG for selenium has been set at 0.05 parts per million (ppm) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has been set at 0.05 ppm because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

These drinking water standards and the regulations are called National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, which ensure these standards are met. All public water supplies must abide by these regulations.

What are the health effects?

Short-term: Selenium is an essential nutrient at low levels. However, EPA has found selenium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: hair and fingernail changes; damage to the peripheral nervous system; fatigue, and irritability.

Long-term: Selenium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: hair and fingernail loss; damage to the kidney and liver tissue, and the nervous and circulatory systems.

What are the side effects of selenium in drinking water?

Epidemiological studies of humans chronically (long-term) exposed to high levels of selenium in food and water have reported discoloration of the skin, pathological deformation and loss of nails, loss of hair, excessive tooth decay and discoloration, lack of mental alertness, and listlessness. https://www.epa.gov ›

Selenium is a chemical that’s nutritionally essential for humans, and it’s naturally present in low concentrations in water sources across South Australia. The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines sets a health limit of 0.01 milligrams per liter and our drinking water is consistently below this. https://www.sawater.com.au ›

How much Selenium is produced and released into the environment?

Selenium compounds are released into the air during the combustion of coal and petroleum fuels and the smelting and refining of other metals.

From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory selenium releases to land and water totaled over 1 million lbs. These releases were primarily from copper smelting industries. The largest releases occurred in Utah. The largest direct release of water occurred in Indiana.

What happens to Selenium when it is released to the environment?

The toxicity of selenium depends on whether it is in the biologically active oxidized form, which occurs in alkaline soils. These conditions can cause plant uptake of the metal to be increased. It is known that selenium accumulates in living tissues.

How will Selenium be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for selenium became effective in 1992. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if selenium is present above 0.05 ppm. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of selenium so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing selenium: Activated Alumina, Coagulation/Filtration, Lime Softening, and Reverse Osmosis.

How will I know if Selenium is in my drinking water?

If the levels of selenium exceed the MCL, the system must notify the public via newspapers, radio, TV, and other means. Additional actions, such as providing alternative drinking water supplies, may be required to prevent serious risks to public health.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 0.05 ppm

MCL: 0.05 ppm

Thallium

What is Thallium and how is it used?

Thallium is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. The greatest use of thallium is in specialized electronic research equipment.

How abundant is thallium on Earth?

Thallium is ranked 60th in order of element abundance in the Earth’s crust. This is a widely dispersed element in the Earth’s crust at a mean concentration to be estimated approx. 0.71 to 1.0 mg/kg(Wedepohl 1995; Rickwood 1983), and a consensus range of 0.1 to 3.0 mg/kg (Fortescue 1992; Rickwood 1983).12 Feb 2021 https://link.springer.com ›

Why is Thallium being regulated?

The MCLG for thallium has been set at 0.5 parts per billion (ppb) because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problems described below.

The MCL has been set at 2 ppb because EPA believes, given present technology and resources, this is the lowest level to which water systems can reasonably be required to remove this contaminant should it occur in drinking water.

Thallium is regulated as a primary drinking water standard, because of health concerns. The EPA has set a maximum contaminant level for thallium of 0.002 mg/L or 2 ppb and a maximum contaminant level goal of 0.0005 mg/L or 0.5 ppb.

https://www.knowyourh2o.com ›

How does thallium get into drinking water?

Thallium can enter your private well water from the erosion of rocks underground. Thallium can also enter groundwater from smelting facilities and the historical use of thallium-containing pesticides and rodenticides. Thallium can enter rainwater and groundwater from the burning of coal from power plants. https://epi.dph.ncdhhs.gov ›

How toxic is thallium to humans?

Thallium can affect your nervous system, lung, heart, liver, and kidneys if large amounts are eaten or drunk for short periods. Temporary hair loss, vomiting, and diarrhea can also occur and death may result after exposure to large amounts of thallium for short periods. https://wwwn.cdc.gov ›

What are the health effects?

Short-term: EPA has found thallium to potentially cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the MCL for relatively short periods: gastrointestinal irritation; nerve damage.

Long-term: Thallium has the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL: changes in blood chemistry; damage to the liver, kidney, intestinal and testicular tissues; hair loss.

Thallium is not produced in the US. Approximately 4,500 lbs. of thallium and its compounds were reportedly imported in 1987. Man-made sources of thallium pollution are gaseous emissions from cement factories, coal-burning power plants, and metal sewers. The leaching of thallium from ore processing operations is the major source of elevated thallium concentrations in water. Thallium is a trace metal associated with copper, gold, zinc, and cadmium.

What happens to Thallium when it is released into the environment?

Thallium does not long persist if released into the water but does have a strong tendency to accumulate in aquatic life. If released to land, it may bind to alkaline soils, but may otherwise migrate to groundwater.

How will Thallium be detected in and removed from my drinking water?

The regulation for thallium became effective in 1994. Between 1993 and 1995, EPA required your water supplier to collect water samples once and analyze them to find out if thallium is present above 2 ppb. If it is present above this level, the system must continue to monitor this contaminant every 3 months.

If contaminant levels are found to be consistently above the MCL, your water supplier must take steps to reduce the amount of thallium so that it is consistently below that level. The following treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing thallium: Activated alumina; Ion Exchange.

Drinking Water Standards:

MCLG: 0.5 ppb

MCL: 2 ppb

Turbidity

Turbidity is caused by particles suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light making the water appear cloudy or murky. Particulate matter can include sediment – especially clay and silt, fine organic and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae, and other microscopic organisms.

Turbidity. Turbidity and suspended matter are not synonymous terms, although most of us use the terms more or less interchangeably. Correctly speaking, suspended matter is that material that can be removed from water through filtration or the coagulation filtration process. Turbidity, on the other hand, is a measure of the amount of light scattered and absorbed by water because of the suspended matter in the water.

There is also some danger of confusion regarding turbidity and color. Turbidity is the lack of clarity or brilliance in water. Water may have a great deal of color — it may even be dark brown — and still, be clear and without suspended matter.

Turbidity – Low [photo showing low turbidity] Turbidity – High [photo showing high turbidity]

When water has a large amount of such suspended particles, we lose our zest for it. While high-turbidity water may be safe to drink, it seems offensive to us. The EPA Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations recommend that the turbidity of potable water be less than 1 unit and less than 5 units under special conditions. The suspended particles clouding the water may be due to such inorganic substances as clay, rock flour, salt, calcium carbonate, silica, iron, manganese, sulfur, or industrial wastes. Again, the clouding may be caused by organic substances such as various microorganisms, finely divided vegetable or animal matter, grease, fat, oil, and others.

How do you fix high turbidity?

A very effective method to remove turbidity is reverse osmosis (“RO”) or ultrafiltration (“UF”) membrane systems. RO and UF systems can be used by homeowners, small communities, and commercial sites to reduce turbidity and produce crystal clear water of less than 0.1 NTUs.

Viruses

FORMS OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN DRINKING WATER, VIRUSES

The smallest of the infectious microorganisms is that group of parasitic forms known as viruses. Too small to be seen under a microscope, viruses are capable of causing disease in both plants and animals. Viruses can pass through porcelain filters that are capable of screening out bacteria. Viruses, such as those producing infectious hepatitis, poliomyelitis, meningitis, and gastroenteritis, can be waterborne. Drinking water contaminated with any of these viruses is hazardous.

Virus. A minute (0.004 to 0.1 micron in diameter) infectious agent that is much smaller than bacteria. Viruses are generally considered parasites that are incapable of growth except in the presence of living cells. They can be preserved indefinitely even when frozen or dried.

As you can see from even this summary, there is a tremendous variety of living organisms in the water. Understanding and classifying their countless varieties requires an immense amount of knowledge and time. Where these organisms are pathogenic or disease-producing, they may make water unsafe to drink. For obvious reasons, even where there is just a possibility that water contains pathogenic organisms, it must be considered contaminated. While there is a large and varied number of pathogens, no single contaminated water supply is apt to contain more than a few of these countless varieties. On one hand, this is fortunate. But at the same time, it makes the detection of pathogens extremely difficult in terms of routine water analysis.

Note: Not only are speed and accuracy essential in testing sources of drinking water for purity, but frequency is also highly important. Municipal systems run tests on a sliding scale: the more inhabitants there are in the community, the more frequent the tests. A sanitary engineer for a community of 10,000 would be required to run a minimum of 10 tests a month; an engineer for a city of 1,000,000 would run 300 water sample tests a month.

Tests on private water systems are seldom if ever, made. In the vast majority of cases, one sample is taken. If it shows the water is safe, no further tests may be made on that well. Unfortunately, a serious limitation of coliform bacteria tests is that they indicate the condition of a given sample and no more. Once a test shows a lack of contamination, there is no guarantee water cannot become contaminated even within a short time. Proper location and construction of a well are important factors. Equally vital is regular chlorination of the water and frequent contamination tests.

Since both speed and accuracy are essential, laboratory scientists need a sure way to expedite the detection of pathogens. They have a dependable answer in a group of readily identified organisms that indicate possible contamination. These indicator organisms are coliform bacteria.

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